Practice
nursing care to clients with Infusion Therapy
The term infusion
therapy refers to a wide variety of techniques
and procedures that health care professionals use to deliver parenteral medications and fluids to their clients. In intravenous (IV) therapy and arterial therapy,
medications and fluids are infused
into the vascular system. Intraperitoneal therapy is
infusion of medications and fluids into the body cavity. Subcutaneous therapy
is infusion of medications and fluids into the subcutaneous tissue.
Central nervous system therapy is infusion of medications
and fluids into the epidural space or intrathecally. Intraosseous therapy is infusion of medications and fluids
into the bones. This chapter focuses
on access for and administration of
infusion therapy. Various types of fluids for infusion are discussed
throughout the text where appropriate.
INTRODUCTION
TO INFUSION THERAPY
Approximately 90% of hospitalized
clients receive some type of infusion
therapy. Health care providers prescribe infusion therapy for a variety of
reasons, including maintenance, replacement, treatment, palliation (promoting
comfort), or a combination of these.
Not long
ago, most clients received infusion therapy as in-patients in acute care
facilities. With the advent of computerized ambulatory and implantable
infusion control devices, as well as long-term infusion access devices, clients
now receive infusion therapy in virtually any
setting, including their homes.
Some agencies
have specialized teams that focus on all of the procedures associated with infusion therapy. These infusion, or IV, teams:
* Develop
infusion policies and procedures
• Start
peripheral IV lines and place peripherally inserted
central catheters
• Administer
parenteral fluids and medications
• Administer parenteral nutrition and blood products
• Maintain infusion devices
They may also:
• Provide input to agency purchasing departments regard
ing infusion
devices and equipment
• Monitor infusion-related complications
• Provide consultation to health care providers and
clients
regarding device selection and placement
• Engage in quality improvement activities
The
continued use of IV teams in health care settings is a controversial issue. In this time of "downsizing,"
"right-sizing," and
"re-engineering," most agencies have disbanded their IV teams, leaving these responsibilities to nurse
generalists or unlicensed technicians. The
impact of a dedicated IV team was recently
tested by a large Veterans' Administration medical center. The medical center started a new IV team and subsequently found that the rate of primary nosocomial bloodstream
infections decreased by 35%. There was a 51% decrease in
bloodstream infections caused by Staphylococcus
aureus. The excess costs per life saved and infection prevented were projected to be $53,000 and $14,000, respectively (Meier, 1998).
The Intravenous Nurses Society (INS), the professional
nursing organization for infusion therapy nurses, publishes standards of care that provide the basis for the
practice of infusion nursing. Its affiliate
organization, the Intravenous Nurses
Certification Corporation (INCC), offers a written certifying examination. Nurses who successfully complete this examination may use the initials CRNI, which
stand for "certified registered nurse
infusion." The INS is currently the only organization offering certification in infusion therapy. The Oncology
Nurses Society (ONS) is another professional organization of
registered nurses and other health care profes-sionals that has developed access device guidelines for nursing practice (ONS,
1996). For more information on these organizations, see http://www.wbsaunders.com/SIMON/Iggy/.
INFUSION
SYSTEMS
Nurses administering infusion
therapies need to understand the way in
which infusion systems work. This knowledge ensures that the nurse can benefit
from a particular system's advantages
while minimizing any potential complications.
Containers
Infusion containers are generally
made of glass or plastic. Plastic
containers are used most often. Glass infusion systems are of two types:
the separate-airway system and the integral-airway system. The separate-airway system has a plastic tube or
"straw" attached to the inside of the thick, hard cork-type stopper.
This tube extends almost the entire length of the bottle to above the fluid level of a full bottle.
Unfiltered air enters through the straw and exerts pressure on the
surface of the fluid, allowing the fluid to
pass through the administration set. The
integral-airway system is also an "open" system. In this system, air
enters through a side port filter on the administration set. This type of set is often referred to as
"vented" tubing.
Plastic containers may be soft and totally collapsible or semirigid. Both of these types of containers are considered
"closed" systems, since they do not rely on outside air to allow the fluid to infuse. Instead, atmospheric pressure
pushes against the flexible sides of the container, allowing
the fluid to flow by gravity. For this
reason, plastic containers use "nonvented," or "unvented,"
tubing.
The
totally collapsible plastic containers are usually made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Some PVC materials are
incompatible with nitroglycerin, insulin,
and fat emulsions. Nitroglycerin and insulin
adhere to the walls of the PVC container, making it impossible to know exactly
how much medication the client is receiving.
Fat emulsions leach the plasticizer diethylhexylph-thalate (DEHP), a component of some PVC containers, thereby making this substance an unintended part of the
infusion.
Although
they are plastic, semirigid containers do not have the same compatibility problems associated with
containers made of PVC. These containers, as their name indicates, are less
flexible than totally collapsible plastic containers.
Administration Sets
The
administration set is the connection between the access device and the container with the infusion solution.
Numerous administration sets are available
in many different configurations. The type
of administration set that the nurse chooses depends on the type and purpose of the infusion. Some sets are generic, meaning that they are appropriate for most infusions.
Other sets are designed to be used for
specific types of infusions. Still other
sets are "dedicated," meaning that they must be used with a specific manufacturer's infusion control device.
Information that describes their proper use
is usually provided on the packaging of
administration sets. Table describe some of the standard and miscellaneous components of administration sets and how to use them.
Filters remove
particulate matter suspended in the infusion solution while allowing the fluid
to pass through to the client. Filters may be membrane filters or depth
filters. Both types of filters may be "in-line" (an integral part of
the administration set) or "add-on" (a filter set that is separate
and must be added to the administration set).
A membrane
filter has tiny pores or holes sized to prevent the passage of particles into the filter. These pores capture any particles that may be in the solution and trap them on
the surface of the filter. One problem associated with membrane filters is that they are prone to "loading."
This means that the filter's surface
becomes completely coated with particulate matter, so that the filter will no longer work
as a filter. It is for this reason that
membrane filters are best suited as final filters rather than
as primary filters.
A depth
filter has a mazelike configuration. Any particles suspended in the fluid pass
through the surface and become trapped in the
multitude of passages as they travel through the labyrinth. In addition, depth
filters have adsorption properties that
cause any particles to adhere to the filter material itself. The
size of the particle does not influence the adsorption of the filter material.
Both
membrane and depth filters are rated by the size of the smallest particles they hold back. A 0.22-micron filter retains any
particles 0.22 micron or larger. These particles may be
particulate matter or organisms, such as Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas.
Needleless Systems
In July 1992 the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) published its guidelines entitled Occupational Exposure to Bloodborne
Pathogens, Final Rule. This document requires
health care organizations to initiate engineering controls "that isolate or remove the bloodborne
pathogen hazard from the
workplace." Currently there are a number of products available and more entering the market every day that are
designed to minimize health care workers'
exposure to contaminated needles. Some of
these products include devices that use blunt metal cannulas or needles recessed into a plastic housing. Others use blunt plastic cannulas, and still others
include valves. Figure 14-1 displays two common needleless
systems currently available. Some companies
have gone a step further to reduce the risk of needle sticks by manufacturing
an IV catheter that, with the push of a button, retracts the needle (Figure 14-2).
Many studies
have been conducted comparing various needleless systems with conventional
venous access systems (see the
Evidence-Based Practice for Nursing Box on p. 199). For example, Mendelson
et al. (1998) concluded that the needleless system for
peripheral infusions is effective in reducing percutaneous injuries to staff and is not associated with an increase in either insertion site complications or nosocomial
bacteremia.
Infusion Regulation Devices
The ability to regulate the rate and volume of
infusions is critical to the safe and
accurate administration of medications and fluids to clients. Nurses have a choice of numerous devices
designed to regulate infusions. Infusion devices can be mechanically or electronically regulated. Mechanically
regulated systems, such as an
elastomeric device, delivers medications and fluids
by positive pressure and has no power source,
such as a battery or alternating current. These small, portable devices administer small-volume, long-term, inter
TABLE 1. COMPONENTS OF ADMINISTRATION SETS
Purpose or
Function STANDARD COMPONENTS
Spike Hard
plastic tube with a sharp point; plastic cover or sheath over the spike must be removed before use
Shield Hard
plastic disk below the spike
Drip
chamber Plastic tube between the shield and the tubing;
the bottom of the spike extends into
this chamber
Bottom of spike Plastic or metal piece that extends into
the drip chamber
Tubing May be of
varying lengths and diameters
Clamps May be
screw clamp or roller clamp
Flashball A piece of
latex with small circles on the surface that highlight areas reinforced with self-sealing material
Connectors
At
the end of the tubing, may be slip tip, Luer-Lok, or slip Luer-Lok
Y-site Set may
have one or more; may be called injection site or side-arm; hard plastic tube;
upper end has either a self-sealing injection port or a valve;
.
bottom of the Y-site is an integral part of the administration set tubing
MISCELLANEOUS COMPONENTS
On-off clamps May be slide or clip; not appropriate for
regulating rate of flow
Burettes Reservoir that is either incorporated into the administration set or an
add-on device; the reservoir holds between 100 and 150 mL of fluid;
the burette is calibrated on the side to assist with accurate measurement; at
the top or bottom of the burette is a rubber cap that looks like the end of a
Y-site; through this self-sealing cap, the nurse can add any medications or additives ordered for the client
Back-check valves Passive flow control
devices |
When present, a back-check valve is
built into the administration set; the
device is a hard plastic one-way valve
Usually an add-on device that looks
like an extension set with a dial
Sharp point penetrates the solution container, sheath maintains
sterility of the spike
Prevents the nurse's hands from slipping
onto the spike when inserting it into the
fluid container
Used to prime the administration set
and to verify continued flow
Size controls the volume of fluid in each drop; may be macrodrip, minidrip, or microdrip; volume of a macro-drip varies among
manufacturers from 10 to 20 drops/mL (gtt/mL); microdrip
or minidrip is 60 gtt/mL
Connects the drip chamber to the
connector device
Controls the rate of fluid flow
through the administration
Connects the tubing to the
connector; reinforced areas used for needle
access to infusion to administer IV push
medications
Connects the administration
set to the client's access device
Used for piggybacking
intermittent medications into the client's primary infusion
Used to open or close the administration
set to flow
The burette is useful for
mixing IV medications for administration or
for controlling the amount of fluid available
for administration, a critical consideration in the care of the young child or the older client
Back-check
valves allow fluid to travel away from the solution container but prevents fluid from flowing upstream toward
the container
Regulates the rate of infusion in
mL/hr; all other clamps are left open, and the passive flow control device regulates administrations at the prescribed rate
Piggybacking an Intermittent
Medication Using a Burette
Verify the order from the
health care provider.
1.Check
the compatibility between the medication and the large-volume parenteral (LVP) infusion and its
additives.
1.Spike the medication mini-bag with the secondary set.
2.Prime the secondary set, close the roller clamp, and
hang the mini-bag on the other arm of
the IV pole.
3.Place
the hanger that comes with the secondary set on the IV pole with the LVP.
4.Cleanse the lowest Y-site injection port on the LVP
admin istration set.
5.Attach the secondary set to the Y-site.
6.Lower
the level of the LVP by hanging it from the hanger. Do not adjust the LVP roller clamp. (The rate will decrease and then stop when the secondary set is opened.)
7.Open
the roller clamp on the secondary set and regulate the flow to the desired rate.
8.When the intermittent infusion completes, the LVP will
automatically begin again. Hang the LVP from the
IV pole and adjust the roller clamp to
deliver the prescribed rate.
OR:
1.To fill the burette, close the main clamp below the
burette.
2.Open
the clamp between the solution container and the burette, allowing the fluid to flow into the burette.
3.When
the burette contains the amount of fluid desired, close the clamp between the solution container and the burette.
4.If
using the burette for administration of intermittent medications, add the prescribed medication now and
gently swirlthe
burette.
5.Regulate
the rate of the infusion from the burette with the lower clamp.
|
Figure. Needleless infusion systems. A. Burron
Safesite IV System Valve and "deadhead."
B. Clave system in use. (A courtesy B. Braun Medical,
Inc.,
Figure. Insyte AutoGuard IV catheters.
With the push of a button, the needle
instantly retracts, reducing the risk of accidental needle stick injuries. (Courtesy Becton Dickinson
Infusion Therapy Systems,
Electronic
infusion devices fall into two categories: controllers and pumps, based on the principle of operation. Nurses and clients who use these electronic infusion devices reap
the benefits of some of the latest computer technology. Infusion regulation devices can save nursing time, prevent
clients from receiving too much infusion
solution, reduce the incidence of infiltration,
and keep infusion access devices patent. However, the nurse must remember that the use of these devices does not decrease the practitioner's responsibility to
carefully monitor the client's infusion site
and the infusion rate.
A controller is
a stationary, pole-mounted electronic device that can be classified as either nonvolumetric
or volumetric. Nonvolumetric controllers rely completely on gravity for flow. A drop sensor attached to the drip chamber of the
administration set regulates flow.
Volumetric controllers also count drops and electronically convert the drops to
milliliters per hour. Because
controllers rely on counting drops, which vary in size and therefore volume, controllers are not as accurate as
pumps.
Pumps may be either stationary
(pole mounted or table-top), ambulatory (portable), or implantable (surgically
implanted into the client). As their name
indicates, these devices actually pump
medications or solutions under pressure. Stationary pumps may be nonvolumetric or
volumetric. Nonvolumetric pumps count drops and, as with controllers, are inherently
inaccurate because of the variation in drop size. Three types of volumetric pumps are available: syringe, cassette, and peristaltic. Syringe pumps use
a mechanism that continuously closes
the plunger at a selected milliliter-per-hour rate. The use of syringe pumps is
limited to small-volume continuous infusions or intermittent infusions.
Syringe pumps are generally not appropriate for continuous administration of larger volumes, since they
require very frequent syringe changes. Cassette pumps use special sets
(dedicated sets) that include a pumping chamber of exact volume. This volume is displaced by means of either a
piston or a diaphragm at the selected
milliliter-per-hour rate. Cassette pumps
usually require special techniques to prime the administration set but are
appropriate for use when delivering large-volume infusions. Peristaltic
pumps are also appropriate for large-volume
infusions. They control the rate of the infusion by squeezing the tubing with
finger-like projections that intermittently "walk across" the
administration set tubing.
Ambulatory pumps
are generally used for home care clients and allow them to return to their usual
activities while receiving infusion therapy.
Implantable pumps usually
include a catheter as part of the pump. The
physician places the catheter in a vessel that feeds the "target" organ or structure. Implantable pumps also have a chamber that holds the medication and at
least one self-sealing septum. The clinician or trained layperson accesses the medication
chamber through the septum to (re)fill or empty the chamber. Implantable pumps are placed in the client's trunk via a laparotomy. Usual implant sites are
the lower abdomen, the subclavicular area, and the subscapular area. Common uses
for these pumps include regional chemotherapy and continuous intraspinal
pain management.
Intravenous Therapy
Intravenous (IV) therapy involves
infusing medications and/or solutions into
the client's veins through a venous access
device (VAD). The placement of the tip of the IV cannula
Nurses and
clients have been exposed to risks since the institution of IV therapy. The
greatest risks are needle stick injuries with possible exposure to bloodbome pathogens,
as well as catheter-related infection or
bacteremia. In 1992 the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) published guidelines to
decrease these risks. Since then, many different needieless
systems have been developed and studied to determine the actual risks to staff and clients and the cost-effectiveness for the health care agency.
In a
study conducted in a 1100-bed teaching medical center, a comparison was made between a needieless
(NL) access system and a conventional
heparin lock (CHL) system. A random
selection of clients was assessed for local IV site complications, including the development of nosocomial bacteremia and device-related complications. Staff
members were assessed for percutaneous
injuries. During the study, 35 percutaneous injuries were reported. Eight were CHL
related; no NL-related injuries were reported. Of 773 episodes of positive blood
cultures on study and control units, 0.8% were device related,
showing virtually no differences between an NL and a CHL system. The projected cost to the institution for hospital-wide implementation of an NL system for
intermittent access for peripheral infusions
was estimated at $82,845, or $230 per 1000 client days.
Critique. This study was
performed on a large group of randomly selected clients. The data demonstrate
that the needle-less system performs as well
as the conventional IV access system with
respect to the risk of microbial contamination. The study examined only intermittent IV access systems for peripheral infusions and did not consider the effects of
these systems when used on central venous access devices. However, since much of the data are based on technique and
usage of these systems, similar outcomes
could be concluded.
Implications for Nursing. The
ability of the nurse to initiate and manage a
client receiving IV therapy safely is of great concern to the nurse, the client, and the health care agency. A needieless IV access system provides a safer means of IV therapy
for the nurse and virtually no greater risk to the client. Nurses must be meticulous in using the appropriate
disinfection before accessing either
system. Each health care agency should consider
these data, their own available resources, and data regarding frequency and risk of intermittent access device-related injuries in its own staff when
selecting any needieless system or safety device.
determines whether the therapy
is considered peripheral or central venous therapy. In peripheral venous
therapy, the tip of the cannula remains in
the peripheral veins. Central venous therapy involves placing the tip of the
cannula or catheter into the
superior vena cava (SVC).
PERIPHERAL INTRAVENOUS THERAPY
Description
Peripheral IV therapy is the most
common method of gaining access to the client's venous system. Nurses
competent in venipuncture insert the needle
or flexible cannula percuta-neously (through the
skin) into the vein. Under most circumstances the peripheral veins offer the
quickest and easiest approach to
establishing a route for administering IV solutions and medications. These solutions and medications may be ad-
BEST
PRACTICE
Placement of Peripheral Venous
Access Devices
• Obtain a health care provider's order for placing a
peripheral
IV cannula.
• For adults, place a peripheral IV catheter only in the
upper
extremities.
• Use
the client's nondominant hand when possible.
• Do not use the arm on the side where the client has a
mas
tectomy, a lymph
node dissection, an arteriovenous shunt or
fistula, or venous revision.
• Use the most distal area of the client's arm above the
wrist
for the initial insertion and work your way up the client's arm
to more proximal sites for subsequent insertions.
• Avoid
placing a peripheral IV catheter over a joint.
• Avoid
placing a peripheral IV cannula in a vein that is
bruised, has puncture wounds from other venipunctures,
is
streaked, is hard, has a palpable cord, or is tender to touch.
Figure:
cannula Figure: syringe Figure: IV Bag and Drip Chamber
Ministered for therapeutic
or diagnostic purposes, including the
following:
* Replacement
of fluid, electrolyte, and nutrient losses
* Administration of anti-infectives
* Blood and blood product
transfusions
Administration of enhancing
agents for diagnostic imaging An order from a health care
provider is necessary beforethe nurse
initiates IV therapy. The order usually includes the following:
*Specific type of solution to be given
*Rate of administration written in milliliters per
hour, milligrams per hour, grams per hour, or units per hour
*Total volume of the infusion
*Number
of hours for infusion
If the health
care provider orders medication for IV administration, the dose, volume,
solution or diluent, rate, and frequency of
administration are usually included in the order. In many agencies the infusion
pharmacist determines the solution and volume for the medication
admixture.
When determining which site to
use to initiate peripheral IV therapy, the
nurse considers the client's age, history, and diagnosis; the type and duration of the prescribed therapy; and whenever
possible, the client's preference.
The veins
considered the most appropriate for most types of peripheral IV therapy are in the upper extremities and include the metacarpal, basilic,
cephalic, and median veins, as well as their branches (Figure 14-3). Veins that are
resilient, long, and straight are the best
choices for cannula placement. Veins that are hard, knotty, or sclerotic are
difficult to cannu-late and are likely to infiltrate. For short-term therapy it is recommended that the nurse place the initial IV catheter
in the most distal site of the client's
arm and use more proximal sites for subsequent
IV cannula insertions.
When determining which vein
and which type of peripheral access
device to use, the nurse considers the product to be infused. The
administration of an isotonic solution, such as 5% dextrose in water (D5W),
does not require any specific precautions
related to the size of the vein or the type of catheter used for infusion. However, medications or solutions that
are viscous or those with a high osmolality or a high or low pH can be harsh and cause vein irritation. For
administration of medications or solutions with these properties, nurse should consider using a larger vein to
decrease the potential for
complications.
Most veins may be used for
IV administrations that are of short duration, such as a one-time dose of an IV
push medication that does not have
vein-irritating properties. An infusion of a medication or solution with
vein-irritating properties requires a larger
vessel to reduce the probability of complications.
Devices
The nurse considers the age and
condition of the client; the size, location, and condition of the available
veins; and the type and duration of the
infusion. The shortest, smallest-gauge device that accommodates the
vein, type of infusion, and duration of
therapy is the nurse's best choice when selecting an IV catheter.
IV
access devices, also known as venous access devices (VADs), may be categorized in a variety of ways. For the purpose
of this discussion, peripheral IV catheters are categorized by dwell time (the amount of time the catheter may stay in the
vein before being replaced)—either short-term dwell or long-term dwell.
|
■ SHORT-TERM DWELL CATHETERS
Winged metal
sets and most over-the-needle catheters are short-term dwell catheters. Most short-term
dwell peripheral catheters have a dwell
time of 48 to 72 hours.
A metal winged
IV set is commonly known as a butterfly. Many practitioners consider these catheters easy to insert, but they contribute
to practitioner needle sticks. The practitioner holds the wings between the thumb and forefinger to insert the device. After insertion the wings lie flat against the
client's skin.
The
standard over-the-needle catheter is between Ó4 and
■ LONG-TERM
DWELL CATHETERS
Long-term dwell
peripheral catheters, such as the
midline or midclavicular catheters, are usually through-the-needle catheters. Through-the-needle catheters have either a
break-away needle or a plastic peel-away
sheath to encase the needle after the
catheter is advanced through it. Some controversy exists over the amount of time these longer-dwell catheters
may stay in place. Some believe that the
midline and midclavicular catheters may remain in place for as long as the client exhibits no complications or until he or she no longer requires
venous access. In a position paper, the
Intravenous Nurses Society (INS) recommends
that the maximum dwell time for midline catheters be
limited to 2 to 4 weeks
and that the maximum dwell time for midclavicular
catheters be limited to 2 to 3 months (INS, 1997a). Blood specimens may be drawn from
indwelling peripheral catheters, but
consideration must be given to the
guidelines set by the manufacturer. When a blood specimen is obtained from a venous access device, blood is withdrawn and discarded before sample collection. Table describes
the blood volume to be discarded before blood sample collection from each venous access device as recommended by the Oncology Nurses Society (ONS) standards of
practice.
A midline
catheter is a through-the-needle catheter that the nurse usually inserts at the
antecubital fossa into the basilic, cephalic, or
median cubital veins. The tip of the midline catheter
rests in the vein about 6 to
A midclavicular catheter is a through-the-needle catheter that is longer than a midline catheter. The tip of the
midclavicular catheter usually rests at the midclavicular
line. This area is the approximate junction of
the axillary and subclavian veins.
CONSIDERATIONS FOR OLDER
ADULTS
Older
adults receiving IV therapy have special needs. The normal aging process presents changes in the skin and vessels that require the nurse's attention.
The older
person's skin is typically loose, thin, and transparent. As people age, they lose subcutaneous fat, the dermis thins, and the density and amount of collagen lessen.
Elastin fibers just below the dermis
become more abundant but less effectively organized. The fine elastin fibers in
the dermis disappear. All of these changes account for the decreased elasticity found in the older client's skin.
The older
adult's veins appear tortuous and large because of inadequate venous pressure. The veins are likely to roll, since there is little connective tissue to hold them, and
the veins themselves become more fragile.
These changes may require the nurse to alter the IV insertion technique. Chart 14-4 outlines special considerations for the older adult receiving
peripheral IV therapy. Fluid overload, electrolyte imbalances, and other
problems can develop when administering fluids to the older client with compromised renal and cardiovascular function. The
nurse can prevent complications of IV
therapy through careful assessment and
monitoring (Powers, 1999).
For
older adults who are confused as a result of delirium or dementia, maintaining
an intact IV system is often a challenge. The client tends to "pick" at the tubing or, in some cases, pull out
the IV line. The nurse protects the site but ensures that it is visible at all
times for assessment and maintenance .
■
CENTRAL
INTRAVENOUS THERAPY
Description
Central venous therapy involves
the placement of a flexible catheter into one of the client's
central veins. The tip of the catheter is
most commonly situated in the superior vena cava. Drags, fluids, nutrients, enhancing diagnostic
agents, and blood and blood products
may be infused through a central IV line.
At times, a central venous catheter (CVC) is placed because peripheral venous
access is inadequate for the duration
or type of IV therapy required. In some clients
a CVC allows the nurse to measure and monitor central venous
pressure (CVP). In other cases a CVC is
inserted to ensure venous access when IV therapy is prescribed.
There are
a number of criteria to consider when determining the type of CVC to use. The type and duration of therapy, the setting in which the therapy will be given, and
the client's lifestyle, activity, and
personal preference all play a role in determining the
type of catheter the client will receive.
Each of the devices
discussed here, with the exception of the
peripherally inserted central catheter, requires a physician to insert the catheter.
Devices
NONTUNNELED CENTRAL VENOUS
ACCESS DEVICES
Nontunneled catheters may be placed at the client's bedside. The physician inserts the catheter percutaneously (through the skin) in a manner
similar to that for a through-the-needle
peripheral IV catheter.
Dressing
Transparent dressing every 5-7 days or gauze
dressing qod
or with catheter change
Transparent dressing every 5-7 days or gauze
dressing qod
or with catheter change
24 hr postinsertion, then transparent dressing every 5-7 days or gauze dressing qod
Transparent dressing every 5-7 days or gauze
dressing qod,
then clean technique unless myelosup-pressed
For continuous access, change noncoring needle and transparent dressing every week or gauze dressing qod
Transparent dressing every 5-7 days or gauze
dressing qod,
then clean technique unless myelosup-pressed
Transparent dressing every 5-7 days or gauze
dressing qod
or with catheter change
Transparent dressing every 5-7 days or gauze
dressing qod
or with catheter change
Cap Changef |
Blood Withdrawal Discard |
Every week or with catheter change |
0.5-1
mL |
Every week |
1-2
mL |
Every week |
1-2
mL |
Every week |
3-5
mL |
NURSING FOCUS on
the OLDER ADULT
Considerations When
Receiving Peripheral Intravenous Therapy
If the client's veins appear
large and tortuous, do not use a tourniquet. Having the client hold the arm in
a dependent position may fill the veins
sufficiently for venipunc-ture.
Do not
use hand veins for starting an IV line. These veins are too small and limit the older client's ability to perform activities
of daily living.
Use the smallest-gauge IV catheter possible,
preferably 21 gauge or smaller. (Most 24-gauge catheters allow the delivery of 100 mL/hr.)
Do not use a traditional tourniquet. A blood pressure
cuff inflated to 80 to
Take time to find the most suitable vein. Use strict
aseptic technique, because the older client is typically immunocompromised.
Do not slap the arm to visualize the client's veins. Use a decreased angle for insertion—usually between 5 and 15 degrees.
Set the flow rate of IV medications, especially
antibiotics, to no more than 100 mL7hr; for
clients with congestive heart failure
or renal failure, set the rate at 50 mL7hr. Use a protective
skin preparation before applying a transparent
dressing over the IV insertion site; dry gauze pads may be best for clients with tissue-thin skin. Cover the IV dressing with flexible netting. If
netting is unavailable, use minimal tape or an elastic bandage to secure the
dressing and protect the site; keep the insertion site visible at all times.
Do not use circumferential restraints on the extremity
with the IV catheter.
Do not use the client's lower extremities for IV
insertion, because the circulation may be
impaired in the client's legs and feet.
Assess the client's mental status at least every 4 hours. Use pumps, controllers, or burettes to control
infusion volume and rate.
Figure • I.V.
House, a commercially available safety device used
for IV site protection, guards the integrity of the older adult's skin while helping to secure the site. (Courtesy I.V.
House,
be into
the chest or neck veins (usually the subclavian, or
internal or external jugular vein). The catheters are made of polyurethane or Silastic
and may have a single lumen or multiple
lumens. The chest and neck vein sites are generally used for short-term
therapy. After placement and before it is used for infusions, the
catheter's placement must be checked by
x-ray examination.
■ PERIPHERALLY INSERTED CENTRAL CATHETER
The peripherally
inserted central catheter (PICC) is a special type of nontunneled
catheter (Figure 14-5). The PICC is currently the only
type of central venous catheter for which placement falls within the realm of nursing practice. Boards of nursing in every state now recognize the specially trained
nurse's ability to safely and efficiently access the client's central venous system with a PICC. Many agencies and regulating boards agree that before a nurse can be considered
"PICC competent," he or she must
complete a minimum of 8 hours of didactic (classroom)
training and perform at least two or three successful PICC placements under the guidance of a preceptor or clinical
trainer. Having a PICC placed by a qualified registered nurse
(RN) instead of a CVC placed by a physician is less invasive to the client and avoids the surgical risk.
The PICC is appropriate
for any setting and for administration of any IV therapy. PICC line placement
is ideal for long-term antibiotic therapy in home care and may be more cost-effective than conventional peripheral catheters
(see the Cost of Care box above). As with
other direct-insertion catheters, PICCs are available as
single- or multiple-lumen devices and
require an x-ray study to verify placement before use. According to the INS position paper (1997b),
a PICC that is functioning well may
remain in place for up to 12 months.
TUNNELED CENTRAL VENOUS
ACCESS DEVICES
Tunneled
central venous catheters include the Broviac, Hickman, Leonard, and Groshong
catheters. These central venous catheters
(CVCs), named for their developers, are made of silicone or polyurethane. Some of the differences among these
catheters relate to their inside diameter, or the gauge of the lumen, and the catheter tip. Before the nurse uses these catheters, the physician confirms the placement
of the catheter tip by radiography.
The Broviac
catheter is usually a smaller-bore catheter than the Hickman, Leonard, and Groshong
catheters. Like the Hickman and Leonard
catheters, the Broviac catheter is an open-ended
catheter, meaning that it has a tip that is open, similar to that of peripheral
venous catheters. The external portions of the Hickman and Broviac
catheters have a reinforced area on
each lumen. When the catheter is not being used for infusions, the lumens are clamped at the reinforced area to
avoid air embolism.
The Groshong
catheter is a closed-ended catheter. Toward the tip of the Groshong catheter on the side,
there is a slit-valve that opens out
and allows fluid to infuse if there is positive pressure in the catheter. It opens in and allows blood to be aspirated if there is negative pressure in the catheter.
When the pressure in the catheter is neutral, the valve is closed. The Groshong catheter is not supplied with clamps, and the manufacturer's instructions state that to maintain the
integrity of the valve, the catheter should
not be clamped. The Groshong tip is available on PICC catheters, as well as on tunneled
catheters. The other features of the Broviac, Hickman, and Groshong catheters
are similar in design. Each of these catheters is available with one to four lumens.
The catheters are usually 19 to
IMPLANTED PORTS
Implanted ports consist of a portal body, a central septum, a reservoir, and a catheter (Figure 14-6). The port is
surgically placed in a subcutaneous pocket
in the client's trunk. The surgeon threads the catheter into the central
vascular system and positions the tip in the superior vena cava. The catheter
is attached to the portal body. The
distal tip of the catheter is either open ended
or closed ended. The septum is made of self-sealing
silicone and is located in either the center or on the side of the portal body. The nurse uses a noncoring
needle device to access the system
by piercing the skin over the portal body and puncturing the septum of
the port.
Dialysis or pheresis catheters may be tunneled or nontun-neled
and are available in plastic for short-term needs and in silicone for long-term
needs. Dialysis catheters have a much larger
lumen than regular central lines and are shorter and less flexible. Being more rigid than other lines allows
high blood volumes and rates. A catheter that becomes soft enough to collapse
with the dynamics of a high flow rate would be disastrous to the dialysis process. Dialysis catheters can be used not only
for dialysis but also for intermittent administration of medication. Because of their size, these catheters
carry a greater risk for complications.
Therefore the physician or an RN with specialized training in
dialysis should be consulted before any
access procedure.
Maintaining
patency of these devices and preventing infection of
the catheter/tunnel requires diligent care. Using aseptic technique when changing dressings and flushing the catheter on schedule with appropriate flush
solution are very important.
A dual-access implanted port for vein “Collar
bone”
A needle puncture through the
skin into the port allows drugs, fluids, and blood to be administered. C, For
systemic drug and fluid delivery,
the catheter is placed in the subclavian vein with the
tip in the superior vena cava. (A courtesy HMP-Horizon Medical Products, Inc.,
Table describes
local and systemic complications of peripheral IV
therapy. When a CVC is used, insertion-related and postinsertion complications must be
prevented or detected early).
Nursing care is
the key to decreasing the incidence of complications
associated with all infusion therapy. A major nursing
responsibility when caring for clients receiving infusion therapy is
prevention, assessment, and management of complications.
Arterial Therapy
Description
Arteries
are used for intra-arterial chemotherapy (IAC). Chemotherapy administered
arterially allows a high concentration of drug to be administered to the tumor
site before it is diluted in the circulatory system or
metabolized by the liver or kidneys. A high drag concentration at the tumor site optimizes cell kill at the tumor site while
minimizing systemic side effects. This
action is important to clients who
are receiving chemotherapy because debilitating systemic side effects often lead to discontinuation
of some therapeutic regimens or
alteration of others. In addition, enough drug is available systemically to
treat undetected micrometastases.
The physician is
responsible for placing the arterial catheter.
This is usually done as a surgical procedure or as an interventional radiologic procedure. The nurse monitors and maintains the IAC.
The artery
selected for encannulation (placement
of a catheter) is specific to the diseased organ or structure to be treated. The physician usually prescribes IAC to treat
a client's localized inoperable tumor in the liver,
head, neck, or bones. Liver tumors are typically treated through the hepatic artery or branches of the celiac artery. The external
carotid artery may be used in the treatment of head and neck
tumors, and the internal carotid artery may
be used in the treatment of brain tumors.
Generally, the duration of the
therapy and the number of treatments to be given determine which type of
catheter the client will receive. If the client is going to have intermittent therapy for a limited number of times, the physician
will likely place a nonpermanent catheter using a radiologic proTABLE 14-3
May be mechanical as a
result of insertion technique or not stabilizing catheter well; may be chemical as a result of the pH or os-molality of the solution or medication
May be caused by piercing the back of the vein during insertion of the catheter;
client may have faulty coagulation ability or be taking anticoagulants
Break in aseptic technique during insertion or the handling of sterile
equipment
May occur if the needle of an over-the-needle catheter is reinserted into the
catheter or if the needle of a
through-the-needle catheter is inadvertently pulled back through the
catheter
IV rate slows down; increasing
edema above the IV insertion site; client may complain of burning and tightness at the IV site.
Client may complain of pain
at the IV site; nurse may observe that
vein appears red and inflamed along the length; client may spike temperature; vein may become hard and cordlike.
Discolored area of bruising around the IV site; client may complain of pain; area may be
swollen.
Site appears
red, swollen, and warm; client may complain of
tenderness at the site; may observe purulent
or malodorous exudate.
Client will experience a decrease in blood pressure and complain of pain along the vein;
pulse becomes weak, rapid, and thready, and nurse may note cyanosis of the nail beds and circumorally;
client may lapse into unconsciousness. If recent, ice may prevent any further seepage into the surrounding tissue; if older, warm moist
compresses will assist with reabsorption of the fluid.
Remove catheter; use warm compresses to relieve pain; adjust infusion solution or admixture to prevent further injury.
Remove IV device and apply pressure; see treatment for infiltration.
Remove IV catheter, allow site to bleed for a few seconds, and use 2x2 gauze to express discharge; send catheter tip for culture;
clean site with antibacterial solution and
cover with dry sterile dressing; physician to 4evaluate for septic phlebitis
and need for surgical intervention.
Discontinue catheter and apply a tourniquet high on the limb of the catheter site;
inspect catheter for any rough edges; an x-ray film is taken to determine the presence of any catheter piece; surgical intervention may be
necessary.
Stabilize IV catheter well; use
smallest catheter that will accomplish
the infusion; avoid placement over area of flexion; monitor site frequently.
Change short-term IV catheter every 72 hr, when infusing
medications or solutions with high osmolality, choose large veins; anchor catheters well to avoid movement in vein.
Carefully advance catheter, staying parallel with the client's skin; select smallest catheter that will accomplish the task.
Use careful technique when inserting IV; change site every 72 hours.
When inserting over-the-needle catheters, never reinsert the needle into the catheter; avoid pulling a
through-the-needle catheter back through the
needle during insertion.
Result of poor
aseptic technique or contaminated infusion
or if the catheter site is not changed regularly
Infusion of fluids at a rate greater than the client's system can accommodate
Rapid infusion of drugs or
bolus infusion, which causes the drug to reach toxic levels quickly
May be a response to tape, cleansing agent, drug, solution, or IV device
Early symptoms include fever, chills, headache, and general malaise; if left untreated, client may experience severe infection, which may lead to vascular
collapse and death.
Client may complain of
shortness of breath and cough; client's
blood pressure is elevated, and there is puffiness around the eyes and edema in
dependent areas; client's neck veins may
be engorged, and nurse may hear moist
breath sounds.
Client may complain of lightheadedness or dizziness and chest tightness; nurse may note that client has a flushed face and an irregular pulse;
without intervention, client may lose consciousness and go into shock and cardiac arrest.
A client having a local reaction
may exhibit a wheal, redness, or
itching at the IV site; in the case of a
general reaction, client may complain of itching, running nose, and tearing; nurse may note bron-chospasm,
wheezing, and a truncal
rash; without treatment, client may experience
anaphylaxis.
Change the entire infusion system from solution to IV device; notify physician, obtain cultures, and administer antibiotics as ordered; if the infusate is the suspected
cause, send a specimen to the laboratory for evaluation.
Slow the IV rate and notify
physician; raise client to an upright position; monitor vital signs and administer oxygen as ordered; administer diuretics as ordered.
Immediately discontinue the
drug infusion and hang D5W to keep the vein open; monitor vital signs carefully and
notify physician for further treatment orders. Same as for
local infection above.
Monitor intake and output carefully and notify physician as soon as an imbalance
is noticed between the client's intake and output.
Nurse is aware of the appropriate infusion rate of medications and adheres to them; use of
infusion control devices assists in
prevention of speed shock.
Chest pain
Dyspnea
Apprehension
Cyanosis
Decreased breath sounds
on the affected side Abnormal chest x-ray
findings
Similar to pneumothorax; usually see dyspnea first and then tachycardia
Decreased hemoglobin because of blood pooling
Same as in hemothorax
Usually noted on insertion with withdrawal
of a milk-like substance
Same as in pneumothorax with absence of vesicular breath sounds and a murmur with a flat sound over the location
Loud churning heard over
the pericardium on aus-
culation Chest pain, dyspnea,
hypoxia Anxiety, tachycardia,
hypotension
Pulsating of bright red blood from the introducer needle
No blood return
Tingling to sensory motor deficit to complete paralysis
Puncture of the pleural covering of the lung by the introducer on insertion of a
direct subclavian approach
Result of
puncture or tran-section of the subclavian vein or artery
Transection of the thoracic duct on the left side
Transection of the subclavian vein and placement of the catheter into the thoracic cavity
Air is introduced into the
central venous system by insertion, tubing
changes, or breaking of the catheter
Accessed the artery instead
of the vein
Poor IV skills Lack of knowledge Small sclerotic veins Volume deficit Infiltration of local anesthetic
Ineffective cannulation
of the vein
Remove catheter or assist
with removal Assess client by monitoring
vital signs, and assess
breath sounds Notify physician immediately if
suspected after
insertion Administer oxygen as
ordered Assist with
insertion of a
chest tube
Same as for pneumothorax Apply pressure on insertion site after introducer needle and catheter are removed
Same as for pneumothorax
Same as for pneumothorax
with removal of the catheter and aspiration of fluid
Place client in lateral Tren-delenburg position on left side
Clamp catheter immediately Notify physician immediately
Remove
needle immediately and apply pressure to the site
Secure a
pressure dressing for 5-10 min
Good venous assessment
before insertion Pull skin to side of vein to
apply anesthetic
Careful cannulation without probing
If resistance is met on catheter advancement, do not force catheter
Resistance is met when
trying to advance the catheter
POSTINSERTION COMPLICATIONS
Malpositioned
Catheter has moved from catheters original placement to either the jugular vein or SVC above the right atrium
Catheter rupture |
Catheter is broken open and/or apart
Occlusion |
Catheter lumen has become narrowed and/or closed as a result of precipitate, blood
clot, or fibrin sheath
Phlebitis |
Inflammation of the vein wall
Thrombosis |
Formation of a blood clot in
a vessel within the neck, chest, or arms
that occurs in the presence of a central
venous catheter
Infection |
Infection may be localized at the insertion site or in the catheter, or may progress to
systemic infection
Ear or neck pain
Water heard in the
ear Palpitations or arrythmias Inability to irrigate
Fluid leaking
Pain or swelling
during infusion Reflux of blood into the catheter extension
Infusion stops and/or pump
alarm sounds
Inability or difficulty administering fluids
Inability or difficulty drawing blood Increased resistance to flushing of the catheter
Pain, redness, slight
swelling
May progress to cellulitus and palpable cord or collateral circulation
Chest pain, earache, or jaw pain
Edema of neck,
supraclavicular area, or extremities
Edema at puncture site
Jugular distention
Collateral
circulation on the affected side
Redness, warmth,
tenderness, swelling at the insertion site
Cellulitus
Possible exudate
of purulent material
Local rash or pustules
Fever, chills, malaise
Leukocytosis
Nausea and vomiting
Elevated urine
glucose level
Changes in interthoracic
pressure related to excessive vomiting or
coughing
Using small syringes (<10
mL). Occluded
catheter Forceful irrigation Pinch syndrome can cause catheter embolus.
Drug precipitate (calcium, diazepam,
and phenytoin are common). Blood clots and fibrin
sheath can form with ineffective flushing routine.
Mechanical phlebitis is common with PICC lines and will appear within 7 days after insertion.
Chemical phlebitis may be seen with catheter rupture.
Statis, vessel wall injury, or hypercoagulability.
Failure to maintain sterile
technique during catheter insertion or care:
- Wet or soiled dressing remaining on site
- Immunosuppression
- Contaminated catheter or solution
- Place client in
semi-Fowler's position
- Rapidly flush
line
- Reposition line by guidewire
exchange (physician)
- Partially
withdraw catheter
- Reposition under fluoroscopy (physician)
- Guidewire exchange (physician). Repair damaged
segment. Remove catheter
For drug precipitate, use hydrochloric acid
For blood clot, use thrombolytic enzymes such as urokinase (see procedure for declotting
central lines)
Mechanical phlebitis:
conservative measures, warm compresses applied for 20 min qid
for approximately 48-72 hr
Mild exercise
Chemical: change catheter and/or medication
Anticoagulant therapy Possible catheter removal
Monitor vital signs closely
Monitor culture site
Redress with sterile technique
Treat systemically with antibiotics or antifungals,
depending on culture results
Blood cultures
Remove catheter cedure in the radiology department. If the client is prescribed continuous therapy over a period of weeks or months,
the physician will likely place a permanent arterial catheter.
Devices
Catheters placed
using a radiologic procedure are usually made of a polymer or Teflon. Catheters inserted surgically are usually ports. These ports are similar to those
discussed under Central Intravenous Therapy, but the lumen
of the catheter is generally smaller.
Whether
the physician is placing the catheter surgically or radiologically,
the catheter is threaded into the main artery feeding the tumor site. Some clients may have several vessels supplying
the tumor site, or it may not be possible to infuse the target vessel without infusing adjacent vessels. In either
situation, the physician may elect to occlude vessels by injecting Gelfoam or metal
coils through the catheter. Blocking the arteries in this way may cause the
tumor to shrink without the
chemotherapy. The body absorbs the Gelfoam within a few days, re-establishing circulation. Metal coils
provide permanent vascular occlusion. Until the client's body establishes collateral circulation, he or she may complain of
general malaise and pain in the area occluded.
Complications
Catheter
displacement is the most common problem associated with temporary arterial catheters. Clients whose catheters become displaced may exhibit dyspepsia,
excessive nausea and vomiting or
diarrhea, gastric pain from peptic ulcers, or abdominal pain from
pancreatitis. Management may include stopping the chemotherapy infusion
temporarily until the client can be treated
with antiemetics and antacids.
A subintimal tear is the separation of the intima and media
of the arterial wall, resulting from manipulation during placement. The client may complain of pain near the target
organ during the infusion. Subintimal
tears can delay therapy for weeks until the
tear heals.
Arterial occlusion may
occur with either a radiologically placed catheter or a surgically placed catheter. The
physician may order heparin to be added to
the chemotherapy infusion or have the client take 650 mg of aspirin twice a day to
avoid catheter occlusion. Even with this prophylactic therapy, the nurse
may observe a transient or permanent loss or decrease in the pulse distal to the insertion site. The nurse must report this symptom immediately. If the physician
diagnoses the client as having an embolism, the physician will either remove the catheter or use the fibrolytic
agent urokinase (Ab-bokinase) in an attempt to lyse
the clot.
Intraperitoneal
Therapy
Description
Intraperitoneal (IP) therapy is the
administration of therapeutic agents (cytotoxic drugs and
biologic response modifiers [BRMs]) into
the peritoneal cavity. IP therapy is usually prescribed for the treatment of
tumors that are confined to the peritoneal
cavity. Carcinomas of the ovaries and fallopian tubes generally meet
this criterion.
There are three
categories of IP catheters generally available: temporary indwelling catheters, semipermanent
indwelling external catheters, and
implantable IP ports. The placement of an IP catheter is a physician responsibility, but the administration
and monitoring of the therapeutic agent is generally a nursing responsibility.
Administration
of the IP therapy includes three phases: the instillation phase, the dwell phase, and the drain phase. The peritoneal
cavity generally acts as a tumor refuge, separated from the bloodstream by a
cellular enclosure similar to the blood-brain barrier. This enclosure protects
IP tumors from systemically infused
chemotherapeutic agents. IP therapy, like
intra-arterial therapy, allows for the administration of an-tineoplastic agents directly to the tumor sites. This enhances the
drug's penetration and cell kill while restricting systemic effects.
Temporary
indwelling catheters include temporary peritoneal dialysis catheters, paracentesis catheters, and 16- or 18-gauge over-the-needle IV
catheters. Semipermanent indwelling external catheters include the Tenckhoff,
Gore-Tex, and column-disk catheters. IP implanted ports are
similar to IV and arterial ports, but the
portal body and the catheter diameter are larger.
Temporary
indwelling catheters may be inserted and removed at the bedside. Clients receiving a temporary indwelling catheter benefit from having a new catheter inserted
at the time of each therapy. Complications such as the development
of fibrous sheaths and infection do not plague these clients.
Semipermanent
indwelling external catheters and IP implanted
ports are inserted in the operating room. Both of these catheters are appropriate for longer-term
therapy.
Complications
Exit site
infection, indicated by redness, tenderness, and warmth of the tissue around the catheter, is more often seen in clients
who have a Tenckhoff catheter. Frequent dressing changes at the exit site using sterile technique
can help prevent this complication.
Microbial
peritonitis is inflammation of the peritoneal membranes from the invasion of microorganisms. The client may experience a fever and complain of abdominal pain.
There may be abdominal rigidity and rebound tenderness. This condition is preventable with strict aseptic
technique in the handling of all equipment and
infusion supplies. Management includes
antimicrobial therapy either intravenously or intraperitoneally.
Chemical
peritonitis is irritation of the peritoneal membranes by the chemotherapeutic
agent. The client may complain of symptoms similar to those experienced with
microbial peritonitis. If chemical
peritonitis is severe, it may delay further
treatment.
Occlusion is the inability
to administer fluids into the peritoneum or withdraw fluid from the
peritoneum. Occlusion is caused by the
formation of fibrous sheaths or fibrin clots or plugs inside the catheter or around the tip. It may also be caused by compartmentalization of fluid due to
adhesions or to twisting, kinking, or
displacement of the catheter. Management may
include the infusion of a lysing agent such as urokinase. If the catheter is an indwelling external catheter, the physician may attempt to dislodge the clot by using a
push-pull method with a syringe and 0.9% normal saline solution (NSS). Sometimes the physician
may insert a sterile stylet through an external
catheter to dislodge the catheter.
Subcutaneous
Therapy
IDescription
Subcutaneous (SC) therapy involves
the insertion of a small-gauge needle into the client's subcutaneous tissue and
the continuous administration of isotonic fluids or medications at a slow rate of usually 1 mL/min.
Continuous subcutaneous infusion (CSQI) has
been used as an alternative to IV therapy, primarily for fluid replacement, and
was referred to as hypodermoclysis
or clysis in the 1950s and 1960s. Today, SC fluid replacement is again being referred to as hypodermoclysis
in the health care literature.
SC infusion was virtually
abandoned after the development of IV
infusion. Recently it has been found to be beneficial primarily for older
persons requiring short-term fluid administration
to correct dehydration (Donnelly, 1999).
Other criteria
for hypodermoclysis include that the client (Brown & Worobec, 2000):
Needs
less than 3000 mL of fluid per day
Has no bleeding
or coagulation problems
Has intact skin
sites available
To facilitate fluid
absorption, an enzyme such as hyaluron-idase (Wydase) may be mixed with the infusion
fluid. Because this enzyme can cause an
allergic reaction, a test dose is given intradermally.
If the enzyme is not used, the infusion may not be well absorbed and redness at the insertion site is more likely (Brown & Worobec, 2000).
Devices
The nurse begins CSQI by
cleansing any area on the client's body that has sufficient subcutaneous
tissue. Such sites include the inner thigh and abdomen. The nurse primes the
attached tubing and, gently pinching an area of approximately 2 inches (
Clients who benefit from CSQI
are those who:
• Are
unable to take oral medications (e.g., have dysphagia, gastrointestinal obstruction, or malabsorption) Have intractable nausea and vomiting
• Require parenteral medication but have poor venous access. Require
subcutaneous injections for longer than 48 hours
• Have a need
for prolonged use of parenteral medication
• Need a continuous level of medication to
control pain
• Cannot cope with the expense of IV therapy
Complications
Insertion
site irritation, evidenced by erythema, heat, or swelling, is a local complication of CSQI. Rotation of
the SC site approximately every 5 to 7 days usually
helps prevent this problem.
Other
complications include pooling of the fluid at the insertion site and an uneven
fluid drip rate. Both of these problems may be resolved by restarting the
infusion in another location. An
infusion pump may also be used.
Another possible
complication is fluid overload. This problem
can be prevented if the fluid rate is no more than 80 mL/hr. If signs of fluid overload
occur, the infusion should be discontinued.
Central Nervous System Therapy
Central nervous system
therapy involves the infusion of medications
into the epidural space or intrathecally.
 Epidural
Therapy
In epidural
therapy, the physician or specially trained nurse administers medication into the epidural space of the spinal column. Located between the wall of the
vertebral canal and the dura mater,
the epidural space consists of fat, connective tissue, and blood vessels that
protect the spinal cord. The most common
uses of epidural therapy are to relieve postoperative or chronic pain
and the pain associated with labor and
delivery. The physician, usually an anesthesiologist or neurosurgeon,
initiates epidural therapy. There are four major categories of catheters used
for epidural therapy. The choice of one over the other depends on the purpose
and duration of the therapy. Table 14-5 describes
each type and lists their indications.
Opioids administered epidurally slowly diffuse across the dura mater to the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. They
lock onto receptors and block pain
impulses from ascending to the brain. The
client receives pain relief from the level of the injection caudally (toward the toes). Local anesthetics administered epidurally work on the
sensory nerve roots in the epidural space
to block pain impulses. The physician administers the
first dose of medication; then, depending on state law, the type of medication, and facility policies, nurses trained in epidural therapy may administer
subsequent doses. In all cases it is
a nursing responsibility to monitor the client receiving epidural therapy for
any signs of complications. In some
states, specially trained nurses are permitted to remove the catheter
when therapy is discontinued.
Complications
associated with epidural therapy are usually caused by the medications
administered. Table 14-6 outlines medication-related complications that may occur with the administration
of epidural opiates and local anesthetics.
■ Intrathecal Therapy
Intrathecal therapy provides a means of administering chemotherapy, pain medication, or antibiotics directly
into the ventricular cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of clients who suffer from CSF malignancies or metastases, chronic cancer pain,
or CSF infections. Some medications
used to treat CSF neoplasms, such as methotrexate
and cytarabine, cannot be administered intravenously
because they cannot cross the blood-brain barrier. Others must be administered in very large doses to cross this natural protective mechanism. It may not be
possible to administer large doses of chemotherapeutic agents intravenously because
of the severe systemic side effects associated with them. Administration of medications via the intrathecal
route
Flexible nylon catheter threaded through a spinal needle into the epidural space. The external
end has a standard female Luer-Lok hub, which
accepts an intermittent injection
cap.
A Silastic catheter
tunneled from the point where it exits the
spine to a point on the client's trunk, usually on the side just above
the waist. Like a tunneled central venous
catheter, the catheter has a Dacron cuff that prevents the migration of microorganisms
along the catheter into the epidural space.
Appears
identical to a venous or arterial port. The surgeon places the portal body over
a bony prominence, such as the spine itself, or one of the client's lower ribs.
Consists of a catheter whose tip sits in the
epidural space at the appropriate level. The
catheter is tunneled subcutaneously and attached to the pump, which is
usually implanted in a pocket in the abdominal
region of the chest wall. As described earlier, the medication is in the
pump's reservoir. Temporary pain relief postoperatively or during
labor and delivery. For pain control in clients with end-stage cancer or a temporary measure to determine if the
client with chronic pain will receive relief
with epidural therapy.
A more permanent catheter
indicated for clients in whom epidural therapy has proved to be effective and who have a life
expectancy of weeks to months.
Indicated for clients who
respond to epidural therapy and have a life expectancy of months
to years. Another indication is the client who is confused and repeatedly pulls out his or her subcutaneous
tunneled catheter.
The most expensive method of
administering epidural therapy. Indicated for clients who will
require therapy for a long period (chronic pain) and who have a life expectancy
of months to years. No postural hypotension Minor
changes in heart rate
If occurs, may
be early at 1 -2 hours due to systemic absorption or late after dose at 6-24 hours
due to migration to brain
Sedation may be marked.
Convulsions absent
Urinary retention
Pruritus
Nausea and vomiting
Epidural Local
Anesthetics
Postural hypotension Decrease in heart rate
Usually unimpaired
Sedation absent to mild
Convulsions possible due to rapid vascular
absorption Sensory
losses Motor weakness Urinary retention Pruritus rarely occurs Nausea
and vomiting rarely occurs eliminates
this problem, since the medication is administered directly into the CSF.
The Ommaya
reservoir is the catheter commonly used for intrathecal therapy. A neurosurgeon is usually responsible for the placement of the catheter in the operating room
under strict asepsis. The Ommaya
reservoir consists of two pieces: a mushroom-shaped
self-sealing dome made of silicone and a
catheter that attaches to the dome. The tip of the catheter is placed in one of the lateral ventricles. The
reservoir is attached and placed beneath a flap in the client's scalp.
Some models of the reservoir have a side
outlet tube that can be used as a shunt to remove excess CSF in the
client with increased intracranial
pressure. The physician, or in some cases the chemotherapy nurse, administers the medication by inserting a needle through the skin into the Ommaya dome. After
removing an amount of CSF equal to the volume of the medication to be
administered, the physician slowly injects the
medication. The physician removes the needle and pumps the dome of the
reservoir to release the medication into the catheter
for delivery to the CSF. The nurse is responsible for monitoring the
client for any complications.
■ Complications
Infection in
the client receiving either epidural or intrathecal therapy is the result of a lack of asepsis when
handling the medication or during the
administration. There may be local evidence
of infection, such as redness or swelling at the catheter exit
site or over the Ommaya reservoir. The client may also exhibit neurologic and systemic signs of
infection, such as headache, stiff neck, or temperature higher than 101° F (38.3° C). The nurse
may observe cloudy CSF, indicating a proliferation
of white blood cells in clients undergoing in-trathecal therapy.
Misplacement
or migration of the catheter may occur at the time of
placement, or the catheter may move or become kinked
after placement. In clients with epidural catheters, when the nurse
aspirates to check placement, he or she may observe
clear, free-flowing fluid (CSF), indicating that the catheter has migrated into the subarachnoid space,
or the nurse may withdraw blood,
indicating that the catheter has migrated into a blood vessel. An
inadvertent administration of local
anesthetics directly into the subarachnoid space may lead to high or total spinal block and convulsions or cardiovascular
depression. Clients who mistakenly receive local anesthetics intravenously may
experience toxic reactions with convulsions. In the client receiving intrathecal therapy
via an Ommaya reservoir, the physician may observe no or very slow filling when
"pumping" the dome. The
client may exhibit new neurologic symptoms if the catheter has migrated.
Intraosseous Therapy
Description
Intraosseous (IO) therapy is a previously
used and re-emerging method of gaining access
to the vascular system. IO therapy is
primarily used in critically injured clients with vascular collapse. However, a number of research studies have confirmed that it is a viable option for other clients
requiring infusion therapy. In some
states, prehospital providers such as emergency medical technicians (EMTs) and paramedics,
as well as trained clinicians in trauma centers
and emergency departments, initiate IO
therapy.
IO therapy allows access to
the rich vascular network located in the
long bones. This vascular network is more prominent in children younger than 6 years of age. Victims of trauma,
burns, cardiac arrest, and other life-threatening conditions
benefit from IO therapy, because often clinicians are unable to access these clients' vascular systems using traditional
methods such as IV therapy. Research indicates that absorption rates of large-volume parenteral (LVP) infusions and medications administered via the IO route
are similar to those achieved with
peripheral or central venous administration.
Devices
Theoretically, any needle may be
used to provide IO therapy and access the medullary space. However, the
following criteria make some needles superior to others for IO
therapy: A needle with a removable stylet that screws into the can-nula to keep the needle from retracting during insertion A short shaft to eliminate accidental dislodgment
after placement
An adjustable guard to stabilize the needle at skin
level • Graduations along
the needle to guide the practitioner during insertiont Complications
Improper needle
placement is the most common complication of IO therapy. An accumulation of fluid under the skin at either the insertion site or on the other side of the
limb indicates that the needle is either
not far enough in to penetrate the bone marrow or is too far into the limb and has protruded through the
other side of the shaft.
Needle
obstruction occurs when the puncture has been accomplished but there has been
a delay in flushing. This delay may cause the needle
to become clotted with bone marrow.
Osteomyelitis
is a very serious complication of IO therapy. This infection in the bone tissue is unusual, but when it occurs, it is generally due to the cannula's being left
in place too long or to the client's having
had a source of infection before the needle's insertion.
An
embolus is a complication of any orthopedic procedure, and IO therapy is no exception. An embolus occurs when a bone fragment or fat enters the peripheral
circulation. The client exhibits classic
symptoms of respiratory distress, tachycardia, hypertension, tachypnea, fever,
and petechiae. Laboratory data indicate an increased sedimentation rate and decreased
red blood cell and platelet counts.
Compartment
syndrome is a condition in which increased tissue pressure in a confined
anatomic space causes decreased blood flow to
the area. The decreased circulation to the area leads to hypoxia and pain in
the area. This is very rare in IO therapy, but the nurse should monitor the
site of the IO therapy carefully and alert the
physician promptly if the client exhibits
any signs of decreased circulation to the limb, such as coolness, swelling,
mottling, or discoloration. Without improvement in perfusion to the limb, the client may require amputation of the limb.