CLINICAL LABORATORY DIAGNOSTICS OF HEMOBLASTOSIS
Etiology is Unknown: Possible Causes:
B. Marrow damage due to irradiation increases the frequency of some leukemias, but not others.
D. Possible genetic factors have been implicated, especially in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia.
2. If the prominent cell line is of the lymphoid series it is a lymphocytic leukemia
Therefore, there are four basic types of leukemia.
II. Acute lymphocytic leukemia – ALL - (includes T cell, B cell, and Null cell)
III. Chronic myelocytic leukemia – CML - (includes myelocytic and myelomonocytic)
The acute leukemias are divided into 2 categories, depending upon their cell of origin. Leukemia evolving from the myeloid/granulocyte cell line is called acute
myelogenous leukemia (AML). Lymphocytic precursors
give rise to acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL). Each year in the
AML is the most common type of acute leukemia in adults, accounting for 80% of new cases. AML is un-common in children. The incidence increases steadily with age, with a sharp increase after 45 years. ALL is the most common malignant disease affecting chil-dren, accounting for approximately 30% of all child-hood cancers.
ALL has a bimodal age distribution, peaking in children between 3 and 5 years of age and again in persons older than 65 years.
Acute leukemias can occur in all age groups
n ALL is more common in children
n AML is more common in adults
Chronic leukemias are usually a disease of adults
n CLL is extremely rare in children and unusual before the age of 40
Age Distribution: optimum ages for development:
5. Monocytic: middle age (rarely before 30)
Comparison of acute and chronic leukemias:
Clinical onset sudden insidious
Course (untreated) 6 mo. or less 2-6 years
Leukemic cells immature >30% blasts more mature cells
Thrombocytopenia prominent mild
Lymphadenopathy mild present; often prominent
Splenomegaly mild present; often prominent
Malignant transformation of a stem cell leading to unregulated proliferation and
arrest in maturation at the primitive blast stage. Remember that a blast is the most immature cell that can be recognized as committed to a particular cell line.
Pathophysiology of the clinical manifestations of acute leukemias
1. Marrow failure due to infiltration
-thrombocytopenia -bleeding, spontaneous bruising
-neutropenia-infections, sepsis
2. Infiltration of other organs
-liver, spleen, lymph nodes (particularly in ALL)
-gums –gum hypertrophy (monocytic subtype of AML)
-bone pain, esp. in children with ALL
3. Leukostasis (only seen with WBC >>50x109 /L)
-lungs -pulmonary infiltrates, hypoxemia
-exposure of substances that can initiate coagulation can cause DIC
At the time of presentation, the leukocyte count in a patient with acute leukemia is generally elevated, but it may be normal or reduced. Fewer than 20% of patients have a leukocyte count greater than 100 ×103/mm3.
Peripheral blood smears show blasts in most cases.
Other notable findings include anemia and thrombocy-topenia; these result from the increased percentage of blasts in the bone marrow, which leaves little room for erythroid and megakaryocytic precursors. Severe throm-bocytopenia (fewer than 50 ×103platelets/mm3) is pres-ent in more than half of patients presenting with acute leukemia. Abnormal results of coagulation tests (ie, hypofibrinogenemia, elevated fibrin split products, defi-ciency of coagulation factors) are seen in patients pre-senting with signs and symptoms of DIC.
Serum electrolyte levels are typically normal in patients with acute leukemia. Lactate dehydrogenase and uric acid levels may be elevated due to rapid cell
turnover; this can lead to urate nephropathy and acute renal failure. Rapid lysis of tumor cells, especially when chemotherapy is instituted, can result in tumor lysis syndrome, manifested by hypocalcemia, hyperkalemia, hyperphosphatemia, and hyperuricemia.
DIAGNOSIS OF LEUKEMIA
The diagnosis of acute leukemia requires that blasts comprise 30 % or more of bone marrow cells or circu-lating white cells.
(For AML, the new WHO classifica-tion proposes to change this to 20 % blasts.) For differ-entiating ALL and AML, a bone marrow aspirate and
biopsy are necessary.
A peripheral blood smear may provide clues to the type of acute leukemia. Myeloblasts exhibit great vari-ability in size, abundant pale blue cytoplasm with
azurophilic (bluish) granules, and distinct nucleoli. The presence of Auer rods, appearing as pink strands within the cytoplasm of the myeloblast, is characteristic of AML. Lymphoblasts tend to be small, with scant cytoplasm and indistinct nucleoli.
Because it is extremely difficult to characterize leu-kemia as lymphoblastic or myeloid based on morpho-logic appearance of blasts, additional analyses of the
blasts are necessary, including cytochemical staining, phenotypic analyses via flow cytometry, and molecular
evaluation for chromosomal abnormalities (ie, cytogenetic studies).
The most important cytochemical stains for deter-mining lineage are myeloperoxidase, Sudan black B, and the esterases. Positive myeloperoxidase reaction or staining with Sudan black B in 3% or more of blast cells indicates myeloid origin. Acid phosphatase is present in early T cells, and demonstration of its activity can dif-ferentiate T-cell ALL from non–T-cell ALL. Generally, lymphoblasts stain with terminal deoxynucleotidyltrans-ferase (Tdt), although a small percentage of myelo-blasts may be positive as well.
Immunophenotyping by flow cytometry will con-firm the diagnosis of leukemia or establish the diagno-sis in cases in which morphology and cytochemical
stains are equivocal. Cytogenetic studies are important because two thirds of patients diagnosed with AML or ALL and 90 % of patients with secondary leukemia will have leukemic blasts showing clonal chromosomal abnormalities.
The chromosomal abnormalities differ between AML and ALL and among the various sub-types. Immunophenotyping and cytogenetic analyses
assist in risk stratification and provide information that has important clinical, prognostic, and treatment implications.
The lab diagnosis is based on two things:
2. Identification of the cell lineage of the leukemic cells
Anemia (normochromic, normocytic)
The degree of peripheral blood involvement determines classification:
n Leukemic – increased WBCs due to blasts
n Subleukemic – blasts without increased WBCs
n Aleukemic – decreased WBCs with no blasts
Classification of the immature cells involved may be done by:
Cytochemistry
Cytochemistry – help to classify the lineage of a leukemic cell (myeloid versus lymphoid). Myeloperoxidase – is found in the primary granules of granulocytic cells starting at the late blast stage. Monocytes may be weakly positive.
Rare positives occur in lymphoid cells. Nonspecific esterase – is used to identify monocytic cells which are diffusely positive. T lymphocytes may have focal staining.
Acid phosphatase may be found in myeloblasts and lymphoblasts. T lymphocytes have a high level of acid phosphatase and this can be used to help make a diagnosis of acute T-lymphocytic leukemia.
Leukocyte alkaline phosphatase – is located in the tertiary granules of segmented neutrophils, bands and metamyelocytes. The LAP score is determined by counting 100 mature neutrophils and bands. Each cell is graded from 0 to 5. The total LAP score is calculated by adding up the scores for each cell.
The differential diagnosis of acute leukemia
The differential diagnosis of acute leukemia in-cludes other conditions in which patients present with an elevated leukocyte count, anemia, and thrombocy-topenia. These include leukemoid reactions and deep-seated infections, which may be associated with an ele-vated leukocyte count and a left shift. Infection with Epstein-Barr virus may cause severe lymphocytosis with atypical lymphocytes present on peripheral smear. The diagnosis can be made easily by the absence of blasts in these conditions.
Patients with acute leukemia may also present with low leukocyte counts together with anemia and throm-bocytopenia. The differential diagnosis of this presen-tation includes the primary bone marrow diseases of myelodysplastic syndrome and aplastic anemia. Infil-tration of the bone marrow by other neoplasms, in-cluding solid tumors and hematologic malignancies, may also present with anemia and/or thrombocytope-nia. Immature forms of leukocytes resembling blasts may be seen in severe megaloblastic anemia due to folate and vitamin B 12 deficiency.
Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia
Neoplastic proliferation of small mature-appearing lymphocytes
>99 % are B-cell derived
Older patients (> 40)
Disease may be discovered incidentally
Fatigue, weakness, weight loss, anorexia, and/or recurrent infections may occur
Variable splenomegaly and non tender lymphadenopathy
Leukemic counterpart of small lymphocytic
Lymphoma
Lab diagnostics
Absolute lymphocytosis (> 4000/mm3)
Smudge cells
Variable anemia, neutropenia, and thrombocytopenia
Hypercellular bone marrow with lymphocytic infiltrates
Hypogammaglobulinemia
Elevated serum LDH
Chronic Myelocytic Leukemia (CML)
15-20 % of all leukemias
Young or middle-aged patients
Asymptomatic, fatigue, abdominal fullness, early satiety, weight loss, anorexia
Splenomegaly, bone pain, bone tenderness
Proliferation of myeloid cells in blood and bone marrow (mostly myelocytes polys)
Slow progression (3 yr survival without Rx)
Ph 1 chromosome in > 95 %
Bone Marrow in CML
Hypercellular bone marrow
High Myeloid : Erythroid Ratio
Myeloid hyperplasia
Relatively few blast cells
Mostly mature neutrophils
Increased basophils and eosinophils
Increased megakaryocytes
Multiple Myeloma
Multiple myeloma, also known as plasma cell myeloma or Kahler's disease, is a cancer of plasma cells, a type of white blood cell normally responsible for producing antibodies. In multiple myeloma, collections of abnormal plasma cells accumulate in the bone marrow, where they interfere with the production of normal blood cells. Most cases of myeloma also feature the production of a paraprotein — an abnormal antibody which can cause kidney problems. Bone lesions and hypercalcemia (high calcium levels) are also often encountered.
Myeloma is diagnosed with blood tests (serum protein electrophoresis, serum free kappa/lambda light chain assay), bone marrow examination, urine protein electrophoresis, and X-rays of commonly involved bones.
The presence of unexplained anemia, kidney dysfunction, a high erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), lytic bone lesions, elevated beta-2 microglobulin, and/or a high serum protein (especially raised globulins or immunoglobulin) may prompt further testing. The globulin level may be normal in established disease. A doctor will request protein electrophoresis of the blood and urine, which might show the presence of a paraprotein (monoclonal protein, or M protein) band, with or without reduction of the other (normal) immunoglobulins. One type of paraprotein is the Bence Jones protein which is a urinary paraprotein composed of free light chains. Quantitative measurements of the paraprotein are necessary to establish a diagnosis and to monitor the disease. The paraprotein is an abnormal immunoglobulin produced by the tumor clone. Very rarely, the myeloma is nonsecretory (not producing immunoglobulins).
In theory, multiple myeloma can produce all classes of immunoglobulin, but IgG paraproteins are most common, followed by IgA and IgM. IgD and IgE myeloma are very rare. In addition, light and or heavy chains (the building blocks of antibodies) may be secreted in isolation: κ- or λ-light chains or any of the five types of heavy chains (α-, γ-, δ-, ε- or μ-heavy chains).
Additional findings include: a raised calcium (when osteoclasts are breaking down bone, releasing calcium into the bloodstream), raised serum creatinine due to reduced renal function, which is mainly due to casts of paraprotein deposition in the kidney, although the cast may also contain complete immunoglobulins and albumin.
Cancer of plasma cells
Disease of older men and women (> 60 years)
Produce abundant useless monoclonal Ig (paraprotein, M-protein)
Decreased normal Ig, infections occur
Lytic bone lesions, bone pain, pathologic fractures, hypercalcemia
Tumorous masses of plasma cells (spine, skull, ribs, pelvis)
Renal failure may develop
Investigation of a patient with suspected myeloma should include the screening tests, followed by further tests to confirm the diagnosis. Electrophoresis of serum and concentrated urine should be performed, followed by immunofixation to confirm and type any M-protein present. Immunofixation and SFLC assessment are indicated in patients where there is a strong suspicion of myeloma but in whom routine serum protein electrophoresis is negative.
Quantification of serum M-protein should be performed by densitometry of the monoclonal peak on electrophoresis; immunochemical measurement of total
immunoglobulin (Ig) isotype level can also be used and is particularly useful for IgA and IgD M-proteins. Quantification of urinary total protein and light chain excretion can be performed directly on a 24-hour urine collection or calculated on a random urine sample in relation to the urine creatinine.
Quantification of SFLC levels is an additional tool for the assessment of light chain production. The serum tests are particularly useful for diagnosis and
monitoring of light chain only myeloma and patients with oligosecretory /
non-secretory disease and in requests
for which urine has not been sent to the laboratory. In renal impairment the
half life and thus serum concentration of SFLC can increase ten fold and there
is often an increased kappa: lambda ratio. A diagnosis of myeloma should be
confirmed by bone marrow (BM) assessment. It is recommended that an adequate
trephine biopsy of at least
Lymphogranulomatosis
Lymphogranulomatosis – is a malignant tumor of lymphoid tissue with lesion of lymph nodes and organs, characterized by growth of the giant cells called Reed-Sternberg- Beresovsky cells, large and small atypical cells (Hodgkin,s cells) and inflammatory infiltration.
Hodgkin's lymphoma, also known as Hodgkin lymphoma and previously known as Hodgkin's disease, is a type of lymphoma, which is a cancer originating from white blood cells called lymphocytes.
Patients with Hodgkin's lymphoma may present with the following symptoms:
§ Lymph nodes: the most common symptom of Hodgkin's is the painless enlargement of one or more lymph nodes, or lymphadenopathy. The nodes may also feel rubbery and swollen when examined. The nodes of the neck and shoulders (cervical and supraclavicular) are most frequently involved (80–90 % of the time, on average). The lymph nodes of the chest are often affected, and these may be noticed on a chest radiograph.
§ Unexplained weight loss
§ Splenomegaly: enlargement of the spleen occurs in about 30 % of people with Hodgkin's lymphoma. The enlargement, however, is seldom massive and the size of the spleen may fluctuate during the course of treatment.
§ Hepatomegaly: enlargement of the liver, due to liver involvement, is present in about 5 % of cases.
§ Hepatosplenomegaly: the enlargement of both the liver and spleen caused by the same disease.
§ Red-coloured patches on the skin, easy bleeding and petechiae
due to low platelet count (as a result of bone marrow infiltration, increased trapping in the spleen etc. – i.e. decreased production, increased removal)
Although the bone marrow cytology findings from the aspirate are sufficient or even preferable for most hematological questions, it is regarded as good practice to obtain a sample for bone marrow histology at the same time, since with improved instruments the procedure has become less stressful, and complementary cytological and histological data are then available from the start. After deep local anesthesia of the dorsal spine and a small skin incision, a histology cylinder at least 1.5cm long is obtained using a sharp hollowneedle (Yamshidi). A Klima and Rossegger cytology needle is then placed through the same subcutaneous channel but at a slightly different site from the earlier insertion point on the spine and gently pushed through the compacta. The mandrel is pulled out and a 5- to 10-ml syringe body with 0.5ml citrate or EDTA (heparin is used only for cytogenetics) is attached to the needle. The patient should be warned that there will be a painful drawing sensation during aspiration, which cannot be avoided. The barrel is then slowly pulled, and if the procedure is successful, blood from the bone marrow fills the syringe. The syringe body is separated from the needle and the mandrel reintroduced. The bone marrow aspirate is transferred from the syringe to a Petri dish. When the dish is gently shaken, small, pinhead-sized bone marrow spicules will be seen lying on the bottom. A smear, similar to a blood smear, can be prepared on a slide directly from the remaining contents of the syringe. If the first aspirate has obtained material, the needle is removed and a light compression bandage is applied. If the aspirate for cytology contains no bone marrow fragments (“punctiosicca,” dry tap), an attempt may be made to obtain a cytology smear from the (as yet unfixed) histology cylinder by rolling it carefully on the slide, but this seldom produces optimal results.
Cell composition in the bone marrow: normal values (%)
Cell densities vary widely, 0.5–2 per view field during screening at low magnification. |
Bone Marrow: Medullary Stroma Cells
These procedures, less invasive than bone marrow biopsy, are a simple and often diagnostically sufficient method for lymph node enlargement or other intumescences. The unanesthetized, disinfected skin is sterilized and pulled taut over the node. A no. 1 needle on a syringe with good suction is pushed through the skin into the lymph node tissue. Tissue is aspirated from several locations, changing the angle of the needle slightly after each collection, and suction maintained while the needle is withdrawn into the subcutis. Aspiration ceases and the syringe is removed without suction. The biopsy harvest, which is in the needle, is extruded onto a microscopy slide and smeared out without force or pressure using a cover glass (spreader slide). Staining is done as described previously for blood smears.