1.                Common carotid artery. Vascular nervous bundle of the neck.  External carotid artery. 3. Lymphatic vessels and nodes of the neck.  System of internal jugular vein. Superficial veins of the neck. cervical plexus

2. Terminal branches of external carotid artery: maxillary and superficial temporal arteries, topography distribution of branches

3. Veins of the head. Lymphatic vessels and nodes of the head

Lesson No 24

Common carotid artery. Vascular nervous bundle of the neck

Brachiocephalic trunk begins from aortic arch on level of right II costal cartilage. It passes upward and to the right of and on level of right sternо-clavicular joint divides into two terminal branches - right common carotid and right subclavianу arteries.

Brachiocephalic trunk is the largest branch of the arch of the aorta, and is from 4 to 5 cm. in length. It arises, on a level with the upper border of the second right costal cartilage, from the commencement of the arch of the aorta, on a plane anterior to the origin of the left carotid; it ascends obliquely upward, backward, and to the right to the level of the upper border of the right sternoclavicular articulation, where it divides into the right common carotid and right subclavian arteries.

The arch of the aorta, and its branches.

Relations.—Anteriorly, it is separated from the manubrium sterni by the Sternohyoideus and Sternothyreoideus, the remains of the thymus, the left innominate and right inferior thyroid veins which cross its root, and sometimes the superior cardiac branches of the right vagus. Posterior to it is the trachea, which it crosses obliquely. On the right side are the right innominate vein, the superior vena cava, the right phrenic nerve, and the pleura; and on the left side, the remains of the thymus, the origin of the left common carotid artery, the inferior thyroid veins, and the trachea.

 

Branches.—The brachiocephalic trunk usually gives off no branches; but occasionally a small branch, the thyreoidea ima, arises from it. Sometimes it gives off a thymic or bronchial branch.

  The thyreoidea ima (a. thyreoidea ima) ascends in front of the trachea to the lower part of the thyroid gland, which it supplies. It varies greatly in size, and appears to compensate for deficiency or absence of one of the other thyroid vessels. It occasionally arises from the aorta, the right common carotid, the subclavian or the internal mammary.

 

Point of Division.—The brachiocephalic trunk sometimes divides above the level of the sternoclavicular joint, less frequently below it.

 Position.—When the aortic arch is on the right side, the innominate is directed to the left side of the neck.

Superficial dissection of the right side of the neck, showing the carotid and subclavian arteries.

 Collateral Circulation.—Allan Burns demonstrated, on the dead subject, the possibility of the establishment of the collateral circulation after ligature of the brachiocephalic trunk, by tying and dividing that artery. He then found that “Even coarse injection, impelled into the aorta, passed freely by the anastomosing branches into the arteries of the right arm, filling them and all the vessels of the head completely.” 97 The branches by which this circulation would be carried on are very numerous; thus, all the communications across the middle line between the branches of the carotid arteries of opposite sides would be available for the supply of blood to the right side of the head and neck; while the anastomosis between the costocervical of the subclavian and the first aortic intercostal (see infra on the collateral circulation after obliteration of the thoracic aorta) would bring the blood, by a free and direct course, into the right subclavian. The numerous connections, also, between the intercostal arteries and the branches of the axillary and internal mammary arteries would, doubtless, assist in the supply of blood to the right arm, while the inferior epigastric from the external iliac would, by means of its anastomosis with the internal mammary, compensate for any deficiency in the vascularity of the wall of the chest.

 

Common carotid artery passes behind sternocleidomastoid muscle upward on front of transverse processes of cervical vertebrae and does not give off any branches. On the level of upper edge of thyroid cartilage common carotid artery divides into external carotid artery and internal carotid artery. This place called bifurcation of carotid artery. There are carotid sinus and carotid glomus here.

 

The Arteries of the Head and Neck. The principal arteries of supply to the head and neck are the two common carotids; they ascend in the neck and each divides into two branches, viz., (1) the external carotid, supplying the exterior of the head, the face, and the greater part of the neck; (2) the internal carotid, supplying to a great extent the parts within the cranial and orbital cavities.

 

The Common Carotid Artery (A. Carotis Communis)—The common carotid arteries differ in length and in their mode of origin. The right begins at the bifurcation of the brachiocephalic trunk behind the sternoclavicular joint and is confined to the neck. The left springs from the highest part of the arch of the aorta to the left of, and on a plane posterior to the brachiocephalic trunk, and therefore consists of a thoracic and a cervical portion.

  The thoracic portion of the left common carotid artery ascends from the arch of the aorta through the superior mediastinum to the level of the left sternoclavicular joint, where it is continuous with the cervical portion.

 

1. Relations.—In front, it is separated from the manubrium sterni by the Sternohyoideus and Sternothyreoideus, the anterior portions of the left pleura and lung, the left innominate vein, and the remains of the thymus; behind, it lies on the trachea, esophagus, left recurrent nerve, and thoracic duct. To its right side below is the brachiocephalic trunk, and above, the trachea, the inferior thyroid veins, and the remains of the thymus; to its left side are the left vagus and phrenic nerves, left pleura, and lung. The left subclavian artery is posterior and slightly lateral to it.

  The cervical portions of the common carotids resemble each other so closely that one description will apply to both (507). Each vessel passes obliquely upward, from behind the sternoclavicular articulation, to the level of the upper border of the thyroid cartilage, where it divides into the external and internal carotid arteries.

The arteries of the face and scalp.

   At the lower part of the neck the two common carotid arteries are separated from each other by a very narrow interval which contains the trachea; but at the upper part, the thyroid gland, the larynx and pharynx project forward between the two vessels. The common carotid artery is contained in a sheath, which is derived from the deep cervical fascia and encloses also the internal jugular vein and vagus nerve, the vein lying lateral to the artery, and the nerve between the artery and vein, on a plane posterior to both. On opening the sheath, each of these three structures is seen to have a separate fibrous investment.

 

Relations.—At the lower part of the neck the common carotid artery is very deeply seated, being covered by the integument, superficial fascia, Platysma, and deep cervical fascia, the Sternocleidomastoideus, Sternohyoideus, Sternothyreoideus, and Omohyoideus; in the upper part of its course it is more superficial, being covered merely by the integument, the superficial fascia, Platysma, deep cervical fascia, and medial margin of the Sternocleidomastoideus. When the latter muscle is drawn backward, the artery is seen to be contained in a triangular space, the carotid triangle, bounded behind by the Sternocleidomastoideus, above by the Stylohyoideus and posterior belly of the Digastricus, and below by the superior belly of the Omohyoideus. This part of the artery is crossed obliquely, from its medial to its lateral side, by the sternocleidomastoid branch of the superior thyroid artery; it is also crossed by the superior and middle thyroid veins which end in the internal jugular; descending in front of its sheath is the descending branch of the hypoglossal nerve, this filament being joined by one or two branches from the cervical nerves, which cross the vessel obliquely. Sometimes the descending branch of the hypoglossal nerve is contained within the sheath. The superior thyroid vein crosses the artery near its termination, and the middle thyroid vein a little below the level of the cricoid cartilage; the anterior jugular vein crosses the artery just above the clavicle, but is separated from it by the Sternohyoideus and Sternothyreoideus. Behind, the artery is separated from the transverse processes of the cervical vertebræ by the Longus colli and Longus capitis, the sympathetic trunk being interposed between it and the muscles. The inferior thyroid artery crosses behind the lower part of the vessel. Medially, it is in relation with the esophagus, trachea, and thyroid gland (which overlaps it), the inferior thyroid artery and recurrent nerve being interposed; higher up, with the larynx and pharynx. Lateral to the artery are the internal jugular vein and vagus nerve.

  At the lower part of the neck, the right recurrent nerve crosses obliquely behind the artery; the right internal jugular vein diverges from the artery, but the left approaches and often overlaps the lower part of the artery.

  Behind the angle of bifurcation of the common carotid artery is a reddish-brown oval body, known as the glomus caroticum (carotid body). It is similar in structure to the glomus coccygeum (coccygeal body) which is situated on the middle sacral artery.

 

Peculiarities as to Origin.—The right common carotid may arise above the level of the upper border of the sternoclavicular articulation; this variation occurs in about 12 per cent. of cases. In other cases the artery may arise as a separate branch from the arch of the aorta, or in conjunction with the left carotid. The left common carotid varies in its origin more than the right. In the majority of abnormal cases it arises with the brachiocephalic trunk; if that artery is absent, the two carotids arise usually by a single trunk. It is rarely joined with the left subclavian, except in cases of transposition of the aortic arch.

Peculiarities as to Point of Division.—In the majority of abnormal cases this occurs higher than usual, the artery dividing opposite or even above the hyoid bone; more rarely, it occurs below, opposite the middle of the larynx, or the lower border of the cricoid cartilage; one case is related by Morgagni, where the artery was only 4 cm. in length and divided at the root of the neck. Very rarely, the common carotid ascends in the neck without any subdivision, either the external or the internal carotid being wanting; and in a few cases the common carotid has been found to be absent, the external and internal carotids arising directly from the arch of the aorta. This peculiarity existed on both sides in some instances, on one side in others.

Occasional Branches.—The common carotid usually gives off no branch previous to its bifurcation, but it occasionally gives origin to the superior thyroid or its laryngeal branch, the ascending pharyngeal, the inferior thyroid, or, more rarely, the vertebral artery.

Collateral Circulation.—After ligature of the common carotid, the collateral circulation can be perfectly established, by the free communication which exists between the carotid arteries of opposite sides, both without and within the cranium, and by enlargement of the branches of the subclavian artery on the side corresponding to that on which the vessel has been tied. The chief communications outside the skull take place between the superior and inferior thyroid arteries, and the profunda cervicis and ramus descendens of the occipital; the vertebral takes the place of the internal carotid within the cranium.

 

Theme 2. External carotid artery (neck branches)

           External carotid artery starts from common carotid artery in carotid triangle on level of superior margin of thyroid cartilage. On level of mandibular neck this artery divides by its two terminal branches. On its extent external carotid artery gives off branches of anterior, posterior, medial and terminal groups.

Follow arteries belong to anterior  group:

1.     superior thyroid artery supplies thyroid gland and gives off a superior laryngeal artery, which supplies muscles and mucous membrane of the larynx;

2.     lingual artery supplies sublingual salivary gland and gives off dorsal branches and deep lingual artery, which supplies muscles and mucous membrane of the tongue;

3.     facial artery in submandibular triangle gives off the branches to submandibular salivary glands, ascending palatine artery to velum and tonsillar branch to palatine tonsils. Bending over margin of mandible in front of masseter muscle, it gives off on face superior labial artery and inferior labial artery. By terminal branch of facial artery is anglular artery, which passes to medial eye angle and anastomoses with dorsal nasal artery from system of internal carotid artery (ophtalmic artery).

Posterior   group   includes :

1.     sternocleidomastoid branch passes to same named muscle and can start from superior thyroid artery, or from occipital artery;

2.     occipital artery supplies posterior skin occipital region;

3.     posterior auricular artery supplies outer and middle ear (by posterior tympanic artery).

Ascending pharyngel artery belong to medial group. It supplies pharynx, deep neck muscles, cerebral dura mater (posterior meningeal artery and tympanic cavity (by inferior tympanic artery through fossula petrosa).

Follow arteries belong to terminal  branches:

1)    Superficial temporal artery, which is continuation of external carotid artery, passes in front of auricle into temporal area and on level of supraorbital margin of frontal bone subdivides into frontal branch and parietal branch, which feed muscles and skin in frontal and parietal area. On this course superficial temporal artery gives off the branches for parotid salivary gland (r. parotideus), zygomaticoorbital artery, for facial muscles (a. transversa faciei), for auricle (rr. auriculares anteriores) and for temporal muscle (a. temporalis media);

2)    Maxillary artery is a largest branch of external carotid artery. According to topography in it one can pick out a mandibular portion, pterygoid portion and pterygopalatine portion.

a)     The first mandibular portion gives off branches to temporo-mandibular joint

The internal carotid and vertebral arteries. Right side.

b)   

 

·          deep auricular artery supplies external ear also tympanic membrane

·          anterior tympanic artery supplies the tympanic cavity

·          middle meningeal artery passes through spinous foramen into scull and feeds dura mater

·          inferior alveolar artery runs into mandibular canal supplies teeth and gingivae of lower jaw and continue as mental artery in mental region.

b)    The second portion of maxillary artery gives off the branches to masticator and buccal muscles (masseteric, deep temporal arteries, pterygoid branches, and buccal artery).

c)     The third portion of maxillary artery gives off :

·          Posterior superior alveolar arteries pass though alveolar canals of maxilla, supply teeth of upper jaw: molars and premolars with parodont

·          infraorbital artery runs through inferior orbital fissura and infraorbital canal, gives off anterior and middle superior alveolar arteries that supply maxilla, upper teeth and gingivae, face muscles

·          sphenopalatine artery to mucous membrane of the nasal cavity

·          descending palatine artery (for palatine)

·          major and minores palatine arteries (for palatine)

The external carotid artery begins opposite the upper border of the thyroid cartilage, and, taking a slightly curved course, passes upward and forward, and then inclines backward to the space behind the neck of the mandible, where it divides into the superficial temporal and internal maxillary arteries. It rapidly diminishes in size in its course up the neck, owing to the number and large size of the branches given off from it. In the child, it is somewhat smaller than the internal carotid; but in the adult, the two vessels are of nearly equal size. At its origin, this artery is more superficial, and placed nearer the middle line than the internal carotid, and is contained within the carotid triangle.

 

Relations.—The external carotid artery is covered by the skin, superficial fascia, Platysma, deep fascia, and anterior margin of the Sternocleidomastoideus; it is crossed by the hypoglossal nerve, by the lingual, ranine, common facial, and superior thyroid veins; and by the Digastricus and Stylohyoideus; higher up it passes deeply into the substance of the parotid gland, where it lies deep to the facial nerve and the junction of the temporal and internal maxillary veins. Medial to it are the hyoid bone, the wall of the pharynx, the superior laryngeal nerve, and a portion of the parotid gland. Lateral to it, in the lower part of its course, is the internal carotid artery. Posterior to it, near its origin, is the superior laryngeal nerve; and higher up, it is separated from the internal carotid by the Styloglossus and Stylopharyngeus, the glossopharyngeal nerve, the pharyngeal branch of the vagus, and part of the parotid gland.

 Branches.—The branches of the external carotid artery may be divided into four sets.

Anterior.

Posterior.

Ascending.

Terminal.

Superior Thyroid.

Occipital.

Ascending

Superficial Temporal.

Lingual.

Posterior Auricular.

Pharyngeal.

Maxillary.

  1. The superior thyroid artery (a. thyreoidea superior) (507) arises from the external carotid artery just below the level of the greater cornu of the hyoid bone and ends in the thyroid gland.

 Relations.—From its origin under the anterior border of the Sternocleidomastoideus it runs upward and forward for a short distance in the carotid triangle, where it is covered by the skin, Platysma, and fascia; it then arches downward beneath the Omohyoideus, Sternohyoideus, and Sternothyreoideus. To its medial side are the Constrictor pharyngis inferior and the external branch of the superior laryngeal nerve.

Branches.—It distributes twigs to the adjacent muscles, and numerous branches to the thyroid gland, anastomosing with its fellow of the opposite side, and with the inferior thyroid arteries. The branches to the gland are generally two in number; one, the larger, supplies principally the anterior surface; on the isthmus of the gland it anastomoses with the corresponding artery of the opposite side: a second branch descends on the posterior surface of the gland and anastomoses with the inferior thyroid artery.

  Besides the arteries distributed to the muscles and to the thyroid gland, the branches of the superior thyroid are:

Hyoid.

Superior Laryngeal.

Sternocleidomastoid.

Cricothyroid.

  The Hyoid Branch (ramus hyoideus; infrahyoid branch) is small and runs along the lower border of the hyoid bone beneath the Thyreohyoideus and anastomoses with the vessel of the opposite side.

  The Sternocleidomastoid Branch (ramus sternocleidomastoideus; sternomastoid branch) runs downward and lateralward across the sheath of the common carotid artery, and supplies the Sternocleidomastoideus and neighboring muscles and integument; it frequently arises as a separate branch from the external carotid.

  The Superior Laryngeal Artery (a. laryngea superior), larger than either of the preceding, accompanies the internal laryngeal branch of the superior laryngeal nerve, beneath the Thyreohyoideus; it pierces the hyothyroid membrane, and supplies the muscles, mucous membrane, and glands of the larynx, anastomosing with the branch from the opposite side.

  The Cricothyroid Branch (ramus cricothyreoideus) is small and runs transversely across the cricothyroid membrane, communicating with the artery of the opposite side.

  2. The lingual artery (a. lingualis) (513) arises from the external carotid between the superior thyroid and external maxillary; it first runs obliquely upward and medialward to the greater cornu of the hyoid bone; it then curves downward and forward, forming a loop which is crossed by the hypoglossal nerve, and passing beneath the Digastricus and Stylohyoideus it runs horizontally forward, beneath the Hyoglossus, and finally, ascending almost perpendicularly to the tongue, turns forward on its lower surface as far as the tip, under the name of the profunda linguæ.

Relations.—Its first, or oblique, portion is superficial, and is contained within the carotid triangle; it rests upon the Constrictor pharyngis medius, and is covered by the Platysma and the fascia of the neck. Its second, or curved, portion also lies upon the Constrictor pharyngis medius, being covered at first by the tendon of the Digastricus and by the Stylohyoideus, and afterward by the Hyoglossus. Its third, or horizontal, portion lies between the Hyoglossus and Genioglossus. The fourth, or terminal part, under the name of the profunda linguæ (ranine artery) runs along the under surface of the tongue to its tip; here it is superficial, being covered only by the mucous membrane; above it is the Longitudinalis inferior, and on the medial side the Genioglossus. The hypoglossal nerve crosses the first part of the lingual artery, but is separated from the second part by the Hyoglossus.

 

Branches.—The branches of the lingual artery are:

Hyoid.

Sublingual.

Dorsales linguæ.

Profunda linguæ.

 

  The Hyoid Branch (ramus hyoideus; suprahyoid branch) runs along the upper border of the hyoid bone, supplying the muscles attached to it and anastomosing with its fellow of the opposite side.

  The Arteriæ Dorsales Linguæ (rami dorsales linguæ) consist usually of two or three small branches which arise beneath the Hyoglossus; they ascend to the back part of the dorsum of the tongue, and supply the mucous membrane in this situation, the glossopalatine arch, the tonsil, soft palate, and epiglottis; anastomosing with the vessels of the opposite side.

  The Sublingual Artery (a. sublingualis) arises at the anterior margin of the Hyoglossus, and runs forward between the Genioglossus and Mylohyoideus to the sublingual gland. It supplies the gland and gives branches to the Mylohyoideus and neighboring muscles, and to the mucous membrane of the mouth and gums. One branch runs behind the alveolar process of the mandible in the substance of the gum to anastomose with a similar artery from the other side; another pierces the Mylohyoideus and anastomoses with the submental branch of the external maxillary artery.

  The Arteria Profunda Linguæ (ranine artery; deep lingual artery) is the terminal portion of the lingual artery; it pursues a tortuous course and runs along the under surface of the tongue, below the Longitudinalis inferior, and above the mucous membrane; it lies on the lateral side of the Genioglossus, accompanied by the lingual nerve. At the tip of the tongue, it is said to anastomose with the artery of the opposite side, but this is denied by Hyrtl. In the mouth, these vessels are placed one on either side of the frenulum linguæ.

  3. The facial artery (a. maxillaris externa; facial artery) (508), arises in the carotid triangle a little above the lingual artery and, sheltered by the ramus of the mandible, passes obliquely up beneath the Digastricus and Stylohyoideus, over which it arches to enter a groove on the posterior surface of the submaxillary gland. It then curves upward over the body of the mandible at the antero-inferior angle of the Masseter; passes forward and upward across the cheek to the angle of the mouth, then ascends along the side of the nose, and ends at the medial commissure of the eye, under the name of the angular artery. This vessel, both in the neck and on the face, is remarkably tortuous: in the former situation, to accommodate itself to the movements of the pharynx in deglutition; and in the latter, to the movements of the mandible, lips, and cheeks.

 

Relations.—In the neck, its origin is superficial, being covered by the integument, Platysma, and fascia; it then passes beneath the Digastricus and Stylohyoideus muscles and part of the submaxillary gland, and frequently beneath the hypoglossal nerve. It lies upon the Constrictores pharyngis medius and superior, the latter of which separates it, at the summit of its arch, from the lower and back part of the tonsil. On the face, where it passes over the body of the mandible, it is comparatively superficial, lying immediately beneath the Platysma. In its course over the face, it is covered by the integument, the fat of the cheek, and, near the angle of the mouth, by the Platysma, Risorius, and Zygomaticus. It rests on the Buccinator and Caninus, and passes either over or under the infraorbital head of the Quadratus labii superioris. The anterior facial vein lies lateral to the artery, and takes a more direct course across the face, where it is separated from the artery by a considerable interval. In the neck it lies superficial to the artery. The branches of the facial nerve cross the artery from behind forward.

The arteries of the face and scalp.

Branches.—The branches of the artery may be divided into two sets: those given off in the neck (cervical), and those on the face (facial).

Cervical Branches.

Facial Branches.

Ascending Palatine.

Inferior Labial.

Tonsillar.

Superior Labial.

Glandular.

Lateral Nasal.

Submental.

Angular.

Muscular.

Muscular.

  The Ascending Palatine Artery (a. palatina ascendens) (513) arises close to the origin of the external maxillary artery and passes up between the Styloglossus and Stylopharyngeus to the side of the pharynx, along which it is continued between the Constrictor pharyngis superior and the Pterygoideus internus to near the base of the skull. It divides near the Levator veli palatini into two branches: one follows the course of this muscle, and, winding over the upper border of the Constrictor pharyngis superior, supplies the soft palate and the palatine glands, anastomosing with its fellow of the opposite side and with the descending palatine branch of the internal maxillary artery; the other pierces the Constrictor pharyngis superior and supplies the palatine tonsil and auditory tube, anastomosing with the tonsillar and ascending pharyngeal arteries.

The internal carotid and vertebral arteries. Right side.

  The Tonsillar Branch (ramus tonsillaris) (513) ascends between the Pterygoideus internus and Styloglossus, and then along the side of the pharynx, perforating the Constrictor pharyngis superior, to ramify in the substance of the palatine tonsil and root of the tongue.

  The Glandular Branches (rami glandulares; submaxillary branches) consist of three or four large vessels, which supply the submaxillary gland, some being prolonged to the neighboring muscles, lymph glands, and integument.

  The Submental Artery (a. submentalis) the largest of the cervical branches, is given off from the facial artery just as that vessel quits the submaxillary gland: it runs forward upon the Mylohyoideus, just below the body of the mandible, and beneath the Digastricus. It supplies the surrounding muscles, and anastomoses with the sublingual artery and with the mylohyoid branch of the inferior alveolar; at the symphysis menti it turns upward over the border of the mandible and divides into a superficial and a deep branch. The superficial branch passes between the integument and Quadratus labii inferioris, and anastomoses with the inferior labial artery; the deep branch runs between the muscle and the bone, supplies the lip, and anastomoses with the inferior labial and mental arteries.

  The Inferior Labial Artery (a. labialis inferior; inferior coronary artery) arises near the angle of the mouth; it passes upward and forward beneath the Triangularis and, penetrating the Orbicularis oris, runs in a tortuous course along the edge of the lower lip between this muscle and the mucous membrane. It supplies the labial glands, the mucous membrane, and the muscles of the lower lip; and anastomoses with the artery of the opposite side, and with the mental branch of the inferior alveolar artery.

  The Superior Labial Artery (a. labialis superior; superior coronary artery) is larger and more tortuous than the inferior. It follows a similar course along the edge of the upper lip, lying between the mucous membrane and the Orbicularis oris, and anastomoses with the artery of the opposite side. It supplies the upper lip, and gives off in its course two or three vessels which ascend to the nose; a septal branch ramifies on the nasal septum as far as the point of the nose, and an alar branch supplies the ala of the nose.

  The Lateral Nasal branch is derived from the external maxillary as that vessel ascends along the side of the nose. It supplies the ala and dorsum of the nose, anastomosing with its fellow, with the septal and alar branches, with the dorsal nasal branch of the ophthalmic, and with the infraorbital branch of the internal maxillary.

  The Angular Artery (a. angularis) is the terminal part of the external maxillary; it ascends to the medial angle of the orbit, imbedded in the fibers of the angular head of the Quadratus labii superioris, and accompanied by the angular vein. On the cheek it distributes branches which anastomose with the infraorbital; after supplying the lacrimal sac and Orbicularis oculi, it ends by anastomosing with the dorsal nasal branch of the ophthalmic artery.

  The Muscular Branches in the neck are distributed to the Pterygoideus internus and Stylohyoideus, and on the face to the Masseter and Buccinator. The anastomoses of the external maxillary artery are very numerous, not only with the vessel of the opposite side, but, in the neck, with the sublingual branch of the lingual, with the ascending pharyngeal, and by its ascending palatine and tonsillar branches with the palatine branch of the internal maxillary; on the face, with the mental branch of the inferior alveolar as it emerges from the mental foramen, with the transverse facial branch of the superficial temporal, with the infraorbital branch of the internal maxillary, and with the dorsal nasal branch of the ophthalmic.

 

Peculiarities.—The external maxillary artery not infrequently arises in common with the lingual. It varies in its size and in the extent to which it supplies the face; it occasionally ends as the submental, and not infrequently extends only as high as the angle of the mouth or nose. The deficiency is then compensated for by enlargement of one of the neighboring arteries.

  4. The occipital artery (a. occipitalis) (508) arises from the posterior part of the external carotid, opposite the external maxillary, near the lower margin of the posterior belly of the Digastricus, and ends in the posterior part of the scalp.

Course and Relations.—At its origin, it is covered by the posterior belly of the Digastricus and the Stylohyoideus, and the hypoglossal nerve winds around it from behind forward; higher up, it crosses the internal carotid artery, the internal jugular vein, and the vagus and accessory nerves. It next ascends to the interval between the transverse process of the atlas and the mastoid process of the temporal bone, and passes horizontally backward, grooving the surface of the latter bone, being covered by the Sternocleidomastoideus, Splenius capitis, Longissimus capitis, and Digastricus, and resting upon the Rectus capitis lateralis, the Obliquus superior, and Semispinalis capitis. It then changes its course and runs vertically upward, pierces the fascia connecting the cranial attachment of the Trapezius with the Sternocleidomastoideus, and ascends in a tortuous course in the superficial fascia of the scalp, where it divides into numerous branches, which reach as high as the vertex of the skull and anastomose with the posterior auricular and superficial temporal arteries. Its terminal portion is accompanied by the greater occipital nerve.

 Branches.—The branches of the occipital artery are:

Muscular.

Sternocleidomastoid.

Auricular.

Meningeal.

Descending.

  The Muscular Branches (rami musculares) supply the Digastricus, Stylohyoideus, Splenius, and Longissimus capitis.

  The Sternocleidomastoid Artery (a. sternocleidomastoidea; sternomastoid artery) generally arises from the occipital close to its commencement, but sometimes springs directly from the external carotid. It passes downward and backward over the hypoglossal nerve, and enters the substance of the muscle, in company with the accessory nerve.

  The Auricular Branch (ramus auricularis) supplies the back of the concha and frequently gives off a branch, which enters the skull through the mastoid foramen and supplies the dura mater, the diploë, and the mastoid cells; this latter branch sometimes arises from the occipital artery, and is then known as the mastoid branch.

  The Meningeal Branch (ramus meningeus; dural branch) ascends with the internal jugular vein, and enters the skull through the jugular foramen and condyloid canal, to supply the dura mater in the posterior fossa.

  The Descending Branch (ramus descendens; arteria princeps cervicis) (513), the largest branch of the occipital, descends on the back of the neck, and divides into a superficial and deep portion. The superficial portion runs beneath the Splenius, giving off branches which pierce that muscle to supply the Trapezius and anastomose with the ascending branch of the transverse cervical: the deep portion runs down between the Semispinales capitis and colli, and anastomoses with the vertebral and with the a. profunda cervicalis, a branch of the costocervical trunk. The anastomosis between these vessels assists in establishing the collateral circulation after ligature of the common carotid or subclavian artery.

  The terminal branches of the occipital artery are distributed to the back of the head: they are very tortuous, and lie between the integument and Occipitalis, anastomosing with the artery of the opposite side and with the posterior auricular and temporal arteries, and supplying the Occipitalis, the integument, and pericranium. One of the terminal branches may give off a meningeal twig which passes through the parietal foramen.

  5. The posterior auricular artery (a. auricularis posterior) (508) is small and arises from the external carotid, above the Digastricus and Stylohyoideus, opposite the apex of the styloid process. It ascends, under cover of the parotid gland, on the styloid process of the temporal bone, to the groove between the cartilage of the ear and the mastoid process, immediately above which it divides into its auricular and occipital branches.

 

Branches.—Besides several small branches to the Digastricus, Stylohyoideus, and Sternocleidomastoideus, and to the parotid gland, this vessel gives off three branches:

Stylomastoid.

Auricular.

Occipital.

 

  The Stylomastoid Artery (a. stylomastoidea) enters the stylomastoid foramen and supplies the tympanic cavity, the tympanic antrum and mastoid cells, and the semicircular canals. In the young subject a branch from this vessel forms, with the anterior tympanic artery from the internal maxillary, a vascular circle, which surrounds the tympanic membrane, and from which delicate vessels ramify on that membrane. It anastomoses with the superficial petrosal branch of the middle meningeal artery by a twig which enters the hiatus canalis facialis.

  The Auricular Branch (ramus auricularis) ascends behind the ear, beneath the Auricularis posterior, and is distributed to the back of the auricula, upon which it ramifies minutely, some branches curving around the margin of the cartilage, others perforating it, to supply the anterior surface. It anastomoses with the parietal and anterior auricular branches of the superficial temporal.

  The Occipital Branch (ramus occipitalis) passes backward, over the Sternocleidomastoideus, to the scalp above and behind the ear. It supplies the Occipitalis and the scalp in this situation and anastomoses with the occipital artery.

  6. The ascending pharyngeal artery (a. pharyngea ascendens) (513), the smallest branch of the external carotid, is a long, slender vessel, deeply seated in the neck, beneath the other branches of the external carotid and under the Stylopharyngeus. It arises from the back part of the external carotid, near the commencement of that vessel, and ascends vertically between the internal carotid and the side of the pharynx, to the under surface of the base of the skull, lying on the Longus capitis.

 Branches.—Its branches are:

Pharyngeal.

Prevertebral.

Palatine.

Inferior Tympanic.

Posterior Meningeal.

  The Pharyngeal Branches (rami pharyngei) are three or four in number. Two of these descend to supply the Constrictores pharyngis medius and inferior and the Stylopharyngeus, ramifying in their substance and in the mucous membrane lining them.

  The Palatine Branch varies in size, and may take the place of the ascending palatine branch of the facial artery, when that vessel is small. It passes inward upon the Constrictor pharyngis superior, sends ramifications to the soft palate and tonsil, and supplies a branch to the auditory tube.

  The Prevertebral Branches are numerous small vessels, which supply the Longi capitis and colli, the sympathetic trunk, the hypoglossal and vagus nerves, and the lymph glands; they anastomose with the ascending cervical artery.

  The Inferior Tympanic Artery (a. tympanica inferior) is a small branch which passes through a minute foramen in the petrous portion of the temporal bone, in company with the tympanic branch of the glossopharyngeal nerve, to supply the medial wall of the tympanic cavity and anastomose with the other tympanic arteries.

  The Meningeal Branches are several small vessels, which supply the dura mater. One, the posterior meningeal, enters the cranium through the jugular foramen; a second passes through the foramen lacerum; and occasionally a third through the canal for the hypoglossal nerve.

  7. The superficial temporal artery (a. temporalis superficialis) (508), the smaller of the two terminal branches of the external carotid, appears, from its direction, to be the continuation of that vessel. It begins in the substance of the parotid gland, behind the neck of the mandible, and corsses over the posterior root of the zygomatic process of the temporal bone; about 5 cm. above this process it divides into two branches, a frontal and a parietal.

Relations.—As it crosses the zygomatic process, it is covered by the Auricularis anterior muscle, and by a dense fascia; it is crossed by the temporal and zygomatic branches of the facial nerve and one or two veins, and is accompanied by the auriculotemporal nerve, which lies immediately behind it.

Branches.—Besides some twigs to the parotid gland, to the temporomandibular joint, and to the Masseter muscle, its branches are:

Transverse Facial.

Anterior Auricular.

Middle Temporal.

Frontal.

Parietal.

  The Transverse Facial Artery (a. transversa faciei) is givien off from the superficial temporal before that vessel quits the parotid gland; running forward through the substance of the gland, it passes transversely across the side of the face, between the parotid duct and the lower border of the zygomatic arch, and divides into numerous branches, which supply the parotid gland and duct, the Masseter, and the integument, and anastomose with the external maxillary, masseteric, buccinator, and infraorbital arteries. This vessel rests on the Masseter, and is accompanied by one or two branches of the facial nerve.

  The Middle Temporal Artery (a. temporalis media) arises immediately above the zygomatic arch, and, perforating the temporal fascia, gives branches to the Temporalis, anastomosing with the deep temporal branches of the internal maxillary. It occasionally gives off a zygomaticoörbital branch, which runs along the upper border of the zygomatic arch, between the two layers of the temporal fascia, to the lateral angle of the orbit. This branch, which may arise directly from the superficial temporal artery, supplies the Orbicularis oculi, and anastomoses with the lacrimal and palpebral branches of the ophthalmic artery.

  The Anterior Auricular Branches (rami auriculares anteriores) are distributed to the anterior portion of the auricula, the lobule, and part of the external meatus, anastomosing with the posterior auricular.

  The Frontal Branch (ramus frontalis; anterior temporal) runs tortuously upward and forward to the forehead, supplying the muscles, integument, and pericranium in this region, and anastomosing with the supraorbital and frontal arteries.

  The Parietal Branch (ramus parietalis; posterior temporal) larger than the frontal, curves upward and backward on the side of the head, lying superficial to the temporal fascia, and anastomosing with its fellow of the opposite side, and with the posterior auricular and occipital arteries.

  8. The maxillary artery (a. maxillaris) (510), the larger of the two terminal branches of the external carotid, arises behind the neck of the mandible, and is at first imbedded in the substance of the parotid gland; it passes forward between the ramus of the mandible and the sphenomandibular ligament, and then runs, either superficial or deep to the Pterygoideus externus, to the pterygopalatine fossa. It supplies the deep structures of the face, and may be divided into mandibular, pterygoid, and pterygopalatine portions.

  The first or mandibular portion passes horizontally forward, between the ramus of the mandible and the sphenomandibular ligament, where it lies parallel to and a little below the auriculotemporal nerve; it crosses the inferior alveolar nerve, and runs along the lower border of the Pterygoideus externus.

  The second or pterygoid portion runs obliquely forward and upward under cover of the ramus of the mandible and insertion of the Temporalis, on the superficial (very frequently on the deep) surface of the Pterygoideus externus; it then passes between the two heads of origin of this muscle and enters the fossa.

  The third or pterygopalatine portion lies in the pterygopalatine fossa in relation with the sphenopalatine ganglion.

  The branches of this vessel may be divided into three groups (511), corresponding with its three divisions.

 Branches of the First or Mandibular Portions.

Anterior Tympanic.

Middle Meningeal.

Deep Auricular.

Accessory Meningeal

Inferior Alveolar.

  The Anterior Tympanic Artery (a. tympanica anterior; tympanic artery) passes upward behind the temporomandibular articulation, enters the tympanic cavity through the petrotympanic fissure, and ramifies upon the tympanic membrane, forming a vascular circle around the membrane with the stylomastoid branch of the posterior auricular, and anastomosing with the artery of the pterygoid canal and with the caroticotympanic branch from the internal carotid.

Plan of branches of maxillary artery.

  The Deep Auricular Artery (a. auricularis profunda) often arises in common with the preceding. It ascends in the substance of the parotid gland, behind the temporomandibular articulation, pierces the cartilaginous or bony wall of the external acoustic meatus, and supplies its cuticular lining and the outer surface of the tympanic membrane. It gives a branch to the temporomandibular joint.

  The Middle Meningeal Artery (a. meningea media;

 medidural artery) is the largest of the arteries which supply the dura mater. It ascends between the sphenomandibular ligament and the Pterygoideus externus, and between the two roots of the auriculotemporal nerve to the foramen spinosum of the sphenoid bone, through which it enters the cranium; it then runs forward in a groove on the great wing of the sphenoid bone, and divides into two branches, anterior and posterior. The anterior branch, the larger, crosses the great wing of the sphenoid, reaches the groove, or canal, in the sphenoidal angle of the parietal bone, and then divides into branches which spread out between the dura mater and internal surface of the cranium, some passing upward as far as the vertex, and others backward to the occipital region. The posterior branch curves backward on the squama of the temporal bone, and, reaching the parietal some distance in front of its mastoid angle, divides into branches which supply the posterior part of the dura mater and cranium. The branches of the middle meningeal artery are distributed partly to the dura mater, but chiefly to the bones; they anastomose with the arteries of the opposite side, and with the anterior and posterior meningeal.

  The middle meningeal on entering the cranium gives off the following branches: (1) Numerous small vessels supply the semilunar ganglion and the dura mater in this situation. (2) A superficial petrosal branch enters the hiatus of the facial canal, supplies the facial nerve, and anastomoses with the stylomastoid branch of the posterior auricular artery. (3) A superior tympanic artery runs in the canal for the Tensor tympani, and supplies this muscle and the lining membrane of the canal. (4) Orbital branches pass through the superior orbital fissure or through separate canals in the great wing of the sphenoid, to anastomose with the lacrimal or other branches of the ophthalmic artery. (5) Temporal branches pass through foramina in the great wing of the sphenoid, and anastomose in the temporal fossa with the deep temporal arteries.

  The Accessory Meningeal Branch (ramus meningeus accessorius; small meningeal or parvidural branch) is sometimes derived from the preceding. It enters the skull through the foramen ovale, and supplies the semilunar ganglion and dura mater.

  The Inferior Alveolar Artery (a. alveolaris inferior; inferior dental artery) descends with the inferior alveolar nerve to the mandibular foramen on the medial surface of the ramus of the mandible. It runs along the mandibular canal in the substance of the bone, accompanied by the nerve, and opposite the first premolar tooth divides into two branches, incisor and mental. The incisor branch is continued forward beneath the incisor teeth as far as the middle line, where it anastomoses with the artery of the opposite side; the mental branch escapes with the nerve at the mental foramen, supplies the chin, and anastomoses with the submental and inferior labial arteries. Near its origin the inferior alveolar artery gives off a lingual branch which descends with the lingual nerve and supplies the mucous membrane of the mouth. As the inferior alveolar artery enters the foramen, it gives off a mylohyoid branch which runs in the mylohyoid groove, and ramifies on the under surface of the Mylohyoideus. The inferior alveolar artery and its incisor branch during their course through the substance of the bone give off a few twigs which are lost in the cancellous tissue, and a series of branches which correspond in number to the roots of the teeth: these enter the minute apertures at the extremities of the roots, and supply the pulp of the teeth.

 Branches of the Second or Pterygoid Portion.—

Deep Temporal.

Masseteric.

Pterygoid.

Buccinator.

  The Deep Temporal Branches, two in number, anterior and posterior, ascend between the Temporalis and the pericranium; they supply the muscle, and anastomose with the middle temporal artery; the anterior communicates with the lacrimal artery by means of small branches which perforate the zygomatic bone and great wing of the sphenoid.

  The Pterygoid Branches (rami pterygoidei), irregular in their number and origin, supply the Pterygoidei.

  The Masseteric Artery (a. masseterica) is small and passes lateralward through the mandibular notch to the deep surface of the Masseter. It supplies the muscle, and anastomoses with the masseteric branches of the external maxillary and with the transverse facial artery.

  The Buccinator Artery (a. buccinatoria; buccal artery) is small and runs obliquely forward, between the Pterygoideus internus and the insertion of the Temporalis, to the outer surface of the Buccinator, to which it is distributed, anastomosing with branches of the external maxillary and with the infraorbital.

 Branches of the Third or Pterygopalatine Portion.—

Posterior Superior Alveolar.

Artery of the Pterygoid Canal.

Infraorbital.

Pharyngeal.

Descending Palatine.

Sphenopalatine.

  The Posterior Superior Alveolar Artery (a. alveolaris superior posterior; alveolar or posterior dental artery) is given off from the internal maxillary, frequently in conjunction with the infraorbital just as the trunk of the vessel is passing into the pterygopalatine fossa. Descending upon the tuberosity of the maxilla, it divides into numerous branches, some of which enter the alveolar canals, to supply the molar and premolar teeth and the lining of the maxillary sinus, while others are continued forward on the alveolar process to supply the gums.

  The Infraorbital Artery (a. infraorbitalis) appears, from its direction, to be the continuation of the trunk of the internal maxillary, but often arises in conjunction with the posterior superior alveolar. It runs along the infraorbital groove and canal with the infraorbital nerve, and emerges on the face through the infraorbital foramen, beneath the infraorbital head of the Quadratus labii superioris. While in the canal, it gives off (a) orbital branches which assist in supplying the Rectus inferior and Obliquus inferior and the lacrimal sac, and (b) anterior superior alveolar branches which descend through the anterior alveolar canals to supply the upper incisor and canine teeth and the mucous membrane of the maxillary sinus. On the face, some branches pass upward to the medial angle of the orbit and the lacrimal sac, anastomosing with the angular branch of the external maxillary artery; others run toward the nose, anastomosing with the dorsal nasal branch of the ophthalmic; and others descend between the Quadratus labii superioris and the Caninus, and anastomose with the external maxillary, transverse facial, and buccinator arteries. The four remaining branches arise from that portion of the internal maxillary which is contained in the pterygopalatine fossa.

  The Descending Palatine Artery (a. palatina descendens) descends through the pterygopalatine canal with the anterior palatine branch of the sphenopalatine ganglion, and, emerging from the greater palatine foramen, runs forward in a groove on the medial side of the alveolar border of the hard palate to the incisive canal; the terminal branch of the artery passes upward through this canal to anastomose with the sphenopalatine artery. Branches are distributed to the gums, the palatine glands, and the mucous membrane of the roof of the mouth; while in the pterygopalatine canal it gives off twigs which descend in the lesser palatine canals to supply the soft palate and palatine tonsil, anastomosing with the ascending palatine artery.

  The Artery of the Pterygoid Canal (a. canalis pterygoidei; Vidian artery) passes backward along the pterygoid canal with the corresponding nerve. It is distributed to the upper part of the pharynx and to the auditory tube, sending into the tympanic cavity a small branch which anastomoses with the other tympanic arteries.

  The Pharyngeal Branch is very small; it runs backward through the pharyngeal canal with the pharyngeal nerve, and is distributed to the upper part of the pharynx and to the auditory tube.

  The Sphenopalatine Artery (a. sphenopalatina; nasopalatine artery) passes through the sphenopalatine foramen into the cavity of the nose, at the back part of the superior meatus. Here it gives off its posterior lateral nasal branches which spread forward over the conchæ and meatuses, anastomose with the ethmoidal arteries and the nasal branches of the descending palatine, and assist in supplying the frontal, maxillary, ethmoidal, and sphenoidal sinuses. Crossing the under surface of the sphenoid the sphenopalatine artery ends on the nasal septum as the posterior septal branches; these anastomose with the ethmoidal arteries and the septal branch of the superior labial; one branch descends in a groove on the vomer to the incisive canal and anastomoses with the descending palatine artery.

Lymphatic vessels and nodes of the neck

Lymphatic system subdivides into primary lymphatic organs (marrow medulla ossium and thymus), secondary lymphatic organs (spleen, lymphatic pharyngeal ring, lymphatic nodes). Beside lymphatic organs, a lymphatic system has close vessel system and is part of vascular system. Lymph is a liquid, like a blood plasma it brings out the metabolic products from tissues.

Function of lymphatic system:

·          taking of lymph from tissues to venous channel (drainage);

·          lymphopoetic (marrow, thymic gland, lymphatic nodes);

·          immune

·          barrier (neutralizing foreign elements which got to organism).

Malignant cells spread (metastasis) by lymphatic channels.

Lymphatic system the following attributes, which make it like a venous system:

·          vessels have the valves;

·          lymph flows from tissues to heart.

Characteristics which differ lymphatic system from venous one:

·          lymphatic nodes are situated on course of lymphatic channels;

·          lymphatic system is tubular vessel system, which is close on one hand, and second - open into venous flow.

Lymphatic vessels are absent in central nervous system, spleen parenchyma, skin epithelium, cartilage, cornea, lens, placenta, hypophysis, and internal ear.

Scheme showing relative positions of primary lymph sacs

Vessel portion of lymphatic system consists of: 1) capillary networks which collect the lymph in the various organs and tissues; 2) vessels, 3) trunks, 4) ducts on which ways 5) nodes are located.

The Capillaries have the lateral recesses and form close net. In volumetric organs (kidneys, liver) they have three dimensions structure. In flat walls of hollow organs they are disposed in plane. Their wall consists of one layer of endothelial cells.

The Vessels subdivide into intraorganіc and extraorganіc, which subdivide into deep and superficial. Vessels have the valves, their wall consists of following layers: 1) endotelial (internal membrane); 2) muscular; 3) external membrane.

The Lymphatic nodes dispose on course of lymphatic vessels. They are organs of lymphopoesis and formation of antibodies, in pursuance the role of lymphoreticular filter.

Follow nodes are distinguished:

1.     regional are the that carry a lymph from some body area or organ;

2.     nodes have a name of accompany vessels;

3.     superficial nodes;

4.     deep nodes are situated under fascia;

5.     visceral nodes are situated in body cavities;

6.     parietal nodes are situated in walls of body cavities.

Each ganglion is covered outer by fibrous envelope - capsule, from which a frame-work of processes (trabeculæ) proceeds inward. On node surface carries the concave place - hilus, where arteries and nerves enter into node, and the veins and efferent lymphatic vessels leave the interior. Node is built from stroma and parenchyma. Stroma of node consists of reticular tissue, where blood cells (mainly lymphocytes) disposed in loops. Cortex and medulla represent node parenchyma. Medullar sinuses are situated in lymphoid tissue, they are disposed between trabeculae and by bands of medulla, where lymph flows. The afferent vessels carry lymph into node and sinuses, efferent vessels commences from interior and transport lymph to the next lymphatic nodes, trunks and ducts.

Lymphatic Trunks:

1) subclavian trunk (right and left); 2) jugular trunk (right and left); 3) bronchо-mediastinal trunk (right and left). They collect lymph from suitable half of head, neck, upper limbs, left or right half of thoracic cavity. These trunks fall into right venous angle or into left venous angle are these venous angles which are formed by subclavian vein and internal jugular vein. 4) lumbar trunk (right and left) collects lymph from lower limbs.

Lymphatic Ducts:

Thoracic duct forms in abdominal cavity on level of ХІІ thoracic - ІІ lumbar vertebrae by the confluence of right and left lumbar lymphatic trunks. There is triangular dilatation, the cisterna chyli or cistern of thoracic duct in this spot. Duct has abdominal part, thoracic part, cervical part and arch of thoracic duct. Last rounds a pleura cupola and ends by opening into the angle of junction of the left subclavian vein with the left internal jugular vein. In thoracic cavity a thoracic duct is situated in posterior mediastinum. It collects lymph from both lower limbs, abdominal, pelvic and left half of thoracic cavities.

Right lymphatic duct is short, by length 10-12 mm, which is formed by confluence of right subclavian trunk, jugular trunk and bronchо-mediastinal trunk and runs into right venous angle. This duct transports lymph from right half of head, neck, right upper limb, right half of thoracic cavity. Frequently this duct can be absent, then the trunks independently fall into right venous angle or into terminal portion of thoracic duct.

The Lymphatics of the Head, Face, and Neck

Lymph from head and neck gathers into right and left jugular lymphatic trunks, which pass on each side near internal jugular vein and fall: right - into right lymphatic duct or into right venous angle and left - into thoracic duct or immediately into left venous angle. Before duct lymph passes through regional lymphatic nodes.

Lymph from head runs into nodes positioned on boundary between head and neck. They include the following: 1) occipital nodes, 2) mastoid nodes, 3) superficial parotid nodes, 4) deep parotid nodes, 5) submandibular nodes, 6) facial nodes, 7) submental. Efferent vessels from these nodes extend in deep cervical nodes.

There are two groups of lymphatic nodes on neck - anterior cervical nodes and lateral

cervical nodes, which subdivide into superficial and deep. Anterior deep lymphatic nodes: prelaryngeal nodes, thyroid nodes, pretracheal nodes, paratracheal nodes. The superficial lateral nodes lie along external jugular vein, and deep - along internal jugular vein.

The lymph nodes of the head are arranged in the following groups:

Occipital.

Facial.

Posterior Auricular.

Deep Facial.

Anterior Auricular.

Lingual.

Parotid.

Retropharyngeal.

  The occipital nodes (lymphoglandulæ occipitales), one to three in nu ber, are placed on the back of the head close to the margin of the Trapezius and resting on the insertion of the Semispinalis capitis. Their afferent vessels drain the occipital region of the scalp, while their efferents pass to the superior deep cervical glands.

  The posterior auricular nodes (lymphoglandulæ auriculares; mastoid glands), usually two in number, are situated on the mastoid insertion of the Sternocleidomastoideus, beneath the Auricularis posterior. Their afferent vessels drain the posterior part of the temporoparietal region, the upper part of the cranial surface of the auricula or pinna, and the back of the external acoustic meatus; their efferents pass to the superior deep cervical glands.

  The anterior auricular nodes (lymphoglandulæ auriculares anteriores; superficial parotid or preauricular nodes), from one to three in number, lie immediately in front of the tragus. Their afferents drain the lateral surface of the auricula and the skin of the adjacent part of the temporal region; their efferents pass to the superior deep cervical nodes.

  The parotid nodes (lymphoglandulæ parotideæ), form two groups in relation with the parotid salivary gland, viz., a group imbedded in the substance of the gland, and a group of subparotid nodes lying on the lateral wall of the pharynx. Occasionally small nodes are found in the subcutaneous tissue over the parotid gland. Their afferent vessels drain the root of the nose, the eyelids, the frontotemporal region, the external acoustic meatus and the tympanic cavity, possibly also the posterior parts of the palate and the floor of the nasal cavity. The efferents of these nodes pass to the superior deep cervical nodes. The afferents of the subparotid glands drain the nasal part of the pharynx and the posterior parts of the nasal cavities; their efferents pass to the superior deep cervical glands.

  The facial nodes comprise three groups: (a) infraorbital or maxillary, scattered over the infraorbital region from the groove between the nose and cheek to the zygomatic arch; (b) buccinator, one or more placed on the Buccinator opposite the angle of the mouth; (c) supramandibular, on the outer surface of the mandible, in front of the Masseter and in contact with the external maxillary artery and anterior facial vein. Their efferent vessels drain the eyelids, the conjunctiva, and the skin and mucous membrane of the nose and cheek; their efferents pass to the submandibular glands.

  The deep facial nodes (lymphoglandulæ faciales profunda; internal maxillary glands) are placed beneath the ramus of the mandible, on the outer surface of the Pterygoideus externus, in relation to the internal maxillary artery. Their afferent vessels drain the temporal and infratemporal fossæ and the nasal part of the pharynx their efferents pass to the superior deep cervical glands.

  The lingual nodes (lymphoglandulæ linguales) are two or three small nodules lying on the Hyoglossus and under the Genioglossus. They form merely glandular substations in the course of the lymphatic vessels of the tongue.

  The retropharyngeal nodes (603), from one to three in number, lie in the buccopharyngeal fascia, behind the upper part of the pharynx and in front of the arch of the atlas, being separated, however, from the latter by the Longus capitis. Their afferents drain the nasal cavities, the nasal part of the pharynx, and the auditory tubes; their efferents pass to the superior deep cervical glands.

  The lymphatic vessels of the scalp are divisible into (a) those of the frontal region, which terminate in the anterior auricular and parotid glands; (b) those of the temporoparietal region, which end in the parotid and posterior auricular glands; and (c) those of the occipital region, which terminate partly in the occipital glands and partly in a trunk which runs down along the posterior border of the Sternocleidomastoideus to end in the inferior deep cervical glands.

  The lymphatic vessels of the auricula and external acoustic meatus are also divisible into three groups: (a) an anterior, from the lateral surface of the auricula and anterior wall of the meatus to the anterior auricular glands; (b) a posterior, from the margin of the auricula, the upper part of its cranial surface, the internal surface and posterior wall of the meatus to the posterior auricular and superior deep cervical glands; (c) an inferior, from the floor of the meatus and from the lobule of the auricula to the superficial and superior deep cervical glands.

  The lymphatic vessels of the face (604) are more numerous than those of the scalp. Those from the eyelids and conjunctiva terminate partly in the submandibular but mainly in the parotid glands. The vessels from the posterior part of the cheek also pass to the parotid glands, while those from the anterior portion of the cheek, the side of the nose, the upper lip, and the lateral portions of the lower lip end in the submandibular glands. The deeper vessels from the temporal and infratemporal fossæ pass to the deep facial and superior deep cervical nodes. The deeper vessels of the cheek and lips end, like the superficial, in the submandibular glands. Both superficial and deep vessels of the central part of the lower lip run to the submental glands.

Lymphatic Vessels of the Nasal Cavities.—Those from the anterior parts of the nasal cavities communicate with the vessels of the integument of the nose and end in the submandibular glands; those from the posterior two-thirds of the nasal cavities and from the accessory air sinuses pass partly to the retropharyngeal and partly to the superior deep cervical glands.

Lymphatic Vessels of the Mouth.—The vessels of the gums pass to the submandibular glands; those of the hard palate are continuous in front with those of the upper gum, but pass backward to pierce the Constrictor pharyngis superior and end in the superior deep cervical and subparotid glands; those of the soft palate pass backward and lateralward and end partly in the retropharyngeal and subparotid, and partly in the superior deep cervical glands. The vessels of the anterior part of the floor of the mouth pass either directly to the inferior glands of the superior deep cervical group, or indirectly through the submental glands; from the rest of the floor of the mouth the vessels pass to the submandibular and superior deep cervical glands.

  The lymphatic vessels of the palatine tonsil, usually three to five in number, pierce the buccopharyngeal fascia and constrictor pharyngis superior and pass between the Stylohyoideus and internal jugular vein to the uppermost of the superior deep cervical glands. They end in a gland which lies at the side of the posterior belly of the Digastricus, on the internal jugular vein; occasionally one or two additional vessels run to small glands on the lateral side of the vein under cover of the Sternocleidomastoideus.

  The lymphatic vessels of the tongue (605) are drained chiefly into the deep cervical glands lying between the posterior belly of the Digastricus and the superior belly of the Omohyoideus; one gland situated at the bifurcation of the common carotid artery is so intimately associated with these vessels that it is known as the principal node of the tongue. The lymphatic vessels of the tongue may be divided into four groups: (1) apical, from the tip of the tongue to the suprahyoid glands and principal gland of the tongue; (2) lateral, from the margin of the tongue—some of these pierce the Mylohyoideus to end in the submandibular glands, others pass down on the Hyoglossus to the superior deep cervical glands; (3) basal, from the region of the vallate papillæ to the superior deep cervical glands; and (4) median, a few of which perforate the Mylohyoideus to reach the submandibular glands, while the majority turn around the posterior border of the muscle to enter the superior deep cervical glands.

The Lymph nodes of the Neck—The lymph nodes of the neck include the following groups:

Submandibular.

Superficial Cervical.

Submental.

Anterior Cervical.

Deep Cervical.

  The submandibular nodes (lymphoglandulæ submaxillares) (604), three to six in number, are placed beneath the body of the mandible in the submandibular triangle, and rest on the superficial surface of the submandibular salivary gland. One gland, the middle node of Stahr, which lies on the external maxillary artery as it turns over the mandible, is the most constant of the series; small lymph nodes are sometimes found on the deep surface of the submandibular salivary glands. The afferents of the submandibular glands drain the medial palpebral commissure, the cheek, the side of the nose, the upper lip, the lateral part of the lower lip, the gums, and the anterior part of the margin of the tongue; efferent vessels from the facial and submental glands also enter the submandibular glands. Their efferent vessels pass to the superior deep cervical glands.

  The submental or suprahyoid nodes are situated between the anterior bellies of the Digastrici. Their afferents drain the central portions of the lower lip and floor of the mouth and the apex of the tongue; their efferents pass partly to the submandibular glands and partly to a gland of the deep cervical group situated on the internal jugular vein at the level of the cricoid cartilage.

  The superficial cervical nodes (lymphoglandulæ cervicales superficiales) lie in close relationship with the external jugular vein as it emerges from the parotid gland, and, therefore, superficial to the Sternocleidomastoideus. Their afferents drain the lower parts of the auricula and parotid region, while their efferents pass around the anterior margin of the Sternocleidomastoideus to join the superior deep cervical glands.

  The anterior cervical nodes form an irregular and inconstant group on the front of the larynx and trachea. They may be divided into (a) a superficial set, placed on the anterior jugular vein; (b) a deeper set, which is further subdivided into prelaryngeal, on the middle cricothyroid ligament, and pretracheal, on the front of the trachea. This deeper set drains the lower part of the larynx, the thyroid gland, and the upper part of the trachea; its efferents pass to the lowest of the superior deep cervical glands.

  The deep cervical nodes (lymphoglandulæ cervicales profundæ) (602, 605) are numerous and of large size: they form a chain along the carotid sheath, lying by the side of the pharynx, esophagus, and trachea, and extending from the base of the skull to the root of the neck. They are usually described in two groups: (1) the superior deep cervical glands lying under the Sternocleidomastoideus in close relation with the accessory nerve and the internal jugular vein, some of the glands lying in front of and others behind the vessel; (2) the inferior deep cervical glands extending beyond the posterior margin of the Sternocleidomastoideus into the supraclavicular triangle, where they are closely related to the brachial plexus and subclavian vein. A few minute paratracheal glands are situated alongside the recurrent nerves on the lateral aspects of the trachea and esophagus. The superior deep cervical glands drain the occipital portion of the scalp, the auricula, the back of the neck, a considerable part of the tongue, the larynx, thyroid gland, trachea, nasal part of the pharynx, nasal cavities, palate, and esophagus. They receive also the efferent vessels from all the other glands of the head and neck, except those from the inferior deep cervical glands. The inferior deep cervical glands drain the back of the scalp and neck, the superficial pectoral region, part of the arm (see page 701), and, occasionally, part of the superior surface of the liver, In addition, they receive vessels from the superior deep cervical glands. The efferents of the superior deep cervical glands pass partly to the inferior deep cervical glands and partly to a trunk which unites with the efferent vessel of the inferior deep cervical glands and forms the jugular trunk. On the right side, this trunk ends in the junction of the internal jugular and subclavian veins; on the left side it joins the thoracic duct.

  The lymphatic vessels of the skin and muscles of the neck pass to the deep cervical glands. From the upper part of the pharynx the lymphatic vessels pass to the retropharyngeal, from the lower part to the deep cervical glands. From the larynx two sets of vessels arise, an upper and a lower. The vessels of the upper set pierce the hyothyroid membrane and join the superior deep cervical glands. Of the lower set, some pierce the conus elasticus and join the pretracheal and prelaryngeal glands; others run between the cricoid and first tracheal ring and enter the inferior deep cervical glands. The lymphatic vessels of the thyroid gland consist of two sets, an upper, which accompanies the superior thyroid artery and enters the superior deep cervical glands, and a lower, which runs partly to the pretracheal glands and partly to the small paratracheal glands which accompany the recurrent nerves. These latter glands receive also the lymphatic vessels from the cervical portion of the trachea.

Lymphatic annulus of pharynx belongs to secondary lymphatic organs and consists of lingual tonsil, palatine tonsil, pharyngeal tonsil and tubarius tonsil. They have tonsillar cryptae and tonsillar fossulae and lymphatic nodules. These tonsils are described in part “pharynx". Tonsils are agglomerations of lymphoid tissue, which is disposed in area of entrance to pharynx and nasopharynx. They are placed around initial portions of high respiratory and digestive paths (lymphoepithelial ring of Pyrohov-Valdeyer).

 

System of internal jugular vein

SYSTEM of internal jugular vein and SUPERIOR VENA CAVA

Superior vena cava is generated by reason of confluence of right and left brachiocephalic veins behind joint of cartilage of first right rib with sternum. Superior vena cava on level of third right cartilage empties into right atrium. Azygos vein empties into superior vena cava from right side.

Brachiocephalic veins form by the confluence of subclavian vein, internal jugular and sometimes External jugular vein. This place is called as venous angle, where thoracic lymphatic duct empties (left side), and right lymphatic duct (right side). Inferior thyroid veins from thyroid plexus, inferior laryngeal vein and thymic vein, pericardial veins from pericardium, bronchic veins and esophageal veins from esophagus fall into brachiocephalic veins.

Azygos vein continues into thoracic cavity from right ascending lumbar vein. Azygos vein receives posterior intercostal veins, esophageal veins, bronchic veins, pericardial veins and mediastinal veins, also hemizygos vein.

Internal jugular vein is a largest vessel, which drainage blood from area of head and neck. Internal jugular vein originates from sygmoid sinus of dura mater encephali, where it begins on level of jugular foramen by superior bulb and lies behind internal carotid artery and vagus nerve. Inferior jugular bulb is situated near the confluence with subclavian vein.

Internal jugular has the following extracranial influxes:

•        pharyngeal veins;

•        lingual vein;

•        superior thyroid vein;

•        facial vein, which receives retromandibular vein

• retromandibular vein empties into facial vein, or into internal jugular vein.

Follow vessels belong to intracranial tributaries of internal jugular vein:

•        venous sinuses of dura mater encephali and veins of brain:

The veins of the brain possess no valves, and their walls, owing to the absence of muscular tissue, are extremely thin. They pierce the arachnoid membrane and the inner or meningeal layer of the dura mater, and open into the cranial venous sinuses. They may be divided into two sets, cerebral and cerebellar.

  The cerebral veins (vv. cerebri) are divisible into external and internal groups according as they drain the outer surfaces or the inner parts of the hemispheres.

  The external veins are the superior, inferior, and middle cerebral.

  The Superior Cerebral Veins (vv. cerebri superiores), eight to twelve in number, drain the superior, lateral, and medial surfaces of the hemispheres, and are mainly lodged in the sulci between the gyri, but some run across the gyri. They open into the superior sagittal sinus; the anterior veins runs nearly at right angles to the sinus; the posterior and larger veins are directed obliquely forward and open into the sinus in a direction more or less opposed to the current of the blood contained within it.

  The Middle Cerebral Vein (v. cerebri media; superficial Sylvian vein) begins on the lateral surface of the hemisphere, and, running along the lateral cerebral fissure, ends in the cavernous or the sphenoparietal sinus. It is connected (a) with the superior sagittal sinus by the great anastomotic vein of Trolard, which opens into one of the superior cerebral veins; (b) with the transverse sinus by the posterior anastomotic vein of Labbé, which courses over the temporal lobe.

  The Inferior Cerebral Veins (vv. cerebri inferiores), of small size, drain the under surfaces of the hemispheres. Those on the orbital surface of the frontal lobe join the superior cerebral veins, and through these open into the superior sagittal sinus; those of the temporal lobe anastomose with the middle cerebral and basal veins, and join the cavernous, sphenoparietal, and superior petrosal sinuses.

  The basal vein is formed at the anterior perforated substance by the union of (a) a small anterior cerebral vein which accompanies the anterior cerebral artery, (b) the deep middle cerebral vein (deep Sylvian vein), which receives tributaries from the insula and neighboring gyri, and runs in the lower part of the lateral cerebral fissure, and (c) the inferior striate veins, which leave the corpus striatum through the anterior perforated substance. The basal vein passes backward around the cerebral peduncle, and ends in the internal cerebral vein (vein of Galen); it receives tributaries from the interpeduncular fossa, the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle, the hippocampal gyrus, and the mid-brain.

  The Internal Cerebral Veins (vv. cerebri internæ; veins of Galen; deep cerebral veins) drain the deep parts of the hemisphere and are two in number; each is formed near the interventricular foramen by the union of the terminal and choroid veins. They run backward parallel with one another, between the layers of the tela chorioidea of the third ventricle, and beneath the splenium of the corpus callosum, where they unite to form a short trunk, the great cerebral vein; just before their union each receives the corresponding basal vein.

  The terminal vein (v. terminalis; vena corporis striati) commences in the groove between the corpus striatum and thalamus, receives numerous veins from both of these parts, and unites behind the crus fornicis with the choroid vein, to form one of the internal cerebral veins. The choroid vein runs along the whole length of the choroid plexus, and receives veins from the hippocampus, the fornix, and the corpus callosum.

Velum interpositum.

   The Great Cerebral Vein (v. cerebri magna [Galeni]; great vein of Galen) (565), formed by the union of the two internal cerebral veins, is a short median trunk which curves backward and upward around the splenium of the corpus callosum and ends in the anterior extremity of the straight sinus.

  The cerebellar veins are placed on the surface of the cerebellum, and are disposed in two sets, superior and inferior. The superior cerebellar veins (vv. cerebelli superiores) pass partly forward and medialward, across the superior vermis, to end in the straight sinus and the internal cerebral veins, partly lateralward to the transverse and superior petrosal sinuses. The inferior cerebellar veins (vv. cerebelli inferiores) of large size, end in the transverse, superior petrosal, and occipital sinuses.

The sinuses of the dura mater are venous channels which drain the blood from the brain; they are devoid of valves, and are situated between the two layers of the dura mater and lined by endothelium continuous with that which lines the veins. They may be divided into two groups: (1) a postero-superior, at the upper and back part of the skull, and (2) an antero-inferior, at the base of the skull.

  The postero-superior group comprises the

Superior Sagittal.

Straight.

Inferior Sagittal.

Two Transverse.

Occipital.

Superior sagittal sinus laid open after remova of the skull cap. The chordæ Willisii are clearly seen. The venous lacunæ are also well shown; from two of them probes are passed into the superior sagittal sinus.

  The superior sagittal sinus (sinus sagittalis superior; superior longitudinal sinus) (566, 567) occupies the attached or convex margin of the falx cerebri. Commencing at the foramen cecum, through which it receives a vein from the nasal cavity, it runs from before backward, grooving the inner surface of the frontal, the adjacent margins of the two parietals, and the superior division of the cruciate eminence of the occipital; near the internal occipital protuberance it deviates to one or other side (usually the right), and is continued as the corresponding transverse sinus. It is triangular in section, narrow in front, and gradually increases in size as it passes backward. Its inner surface presents the openings of the superior cerebral veins, which run, for the most part, obliquely forward, and open chiefly at the back part of the sinus, their orifices being concealed by fibrous folds; numerous fibrous bands (chordæ Willisii) extend transversely across the inferior angle of the sinus; and, lastly, small openings communicate with irregularly shaped venous spaces (venous lacunæ) in the dura mater near the sinus. There are usually three lacunæ on either side of the sinus: a small frontal, a large parietal, and an occipital, intermediate in size between the other two (Sargent 106). Most of the cerebral veins from the outer surface of the hemisphere open into these lacunæ, and numerous arachnoid granulations (Pacchionian bodies) project into them from below. The superior sagittal sinus receives the superior cerebral veins, veins from the diploë and dura mater, and, near the posterior extremity of the sagittal suture, veins from the pericranium, which pass through the parietal foramina.

  The numerous communications exist between this sinus and the veins of the nose, scalp, and diploë.

Dura mater and its processes exposed by removing part of the right half of the skull, and the brain.

  The inferior sagittal sinus (sinus sagittalis inferior; inferior longitudinal sinus) (567) is contained in the posterior half or two-thirds of the free margin of the falx cerebri. It is of a cylindrical form, increases in size as it passes backward, and ends in the straight sinus. It receives several veins from the falx cerebri, and occasionally a few from the medial surfaces of the hemispheres.

  The straight sinus (sinus rectus; tentorial sinus) (567, 569) is situated at the line of junction of the falx cerebri with the tentorium cerebelli. It is triangular in section, increases in size as it proceeds backward, and runs downward and backward from the end of the inferior sagittal sinus to the transverse sinus of the opposite side to that into which the superior sagittal sinus is prolonged. Its terminal part communicates by a cross branch with the confluence of the sinuses. Besides the inferior sagittal sinus, it receives the great cerebral vein (great vein of Galen) and the superior cerebellar veins. A few transverse bands cross its interior.

Sagittal section of the skull, showing the sinuses of the dura.

The sinuses at the base of the skull.

  The transverse sinuses (sinus transversus; lateral sinuses) (569, 570) are of large size and begin at the internal occipital protuberance; one, generally the right, being the direct continuation of the superior sagittal sinus, the other of the straight sinus. Each transverse sinus passes lateralward and forward, describing a slight curve with its convexity upward, to the base of the petrous portion of the temporal bone, and lies, in this part of its course, in the attached margin of the tentorium cerebelli; it then leaves the tentorium and curves downward and medialward to reach the jugular foramen, where it ends in the internal jugular vein. In its course it rests upon the squama of the occipital, the mastoid angle of the parietal, the mastoid part of the temporal, and, just before its termination, the jugular process of the occipital; the portion which occupies the groove on the mastoid part of the temporal is sometimes termed the sigmoid sinus. The transverse sinuses are frequently of unequal size, that formed by the superior sagittal sinus being the larger; they increase in size as they proceed from behind forward. On transverse section the horizontal portion exhibits a prismatic, the curved portion a semicylindrical form. They receive the blood from the superior petrosal sinuses at the base of the petrous portion of the temporal bone; they communicate with the veins of the pericranium by means of the mastoid and condyloid emissary veins; and they receive some of the inferior cerebral and inferior cerebellar veins, and some veins from the diploë. The petrosquamous sinus, when present, runs backward along the junction of the squama and petrous portion of the temporal, and opens into the transverse sinus.

  The occipital sinus (sinus occipitalis) (570) is the smallest of the cranial sinuses. It is situated in the attached margin of the falx cerebelli, and is generally single, but occasionally there are two. It commences around the margin of the foramen magnum by several small venous channels, one of which joins the terminal part of the transverse sinus; it communicates with the posterior internal vertebral venous plexuses and ends in the confluence of the sinuses.

  The Confluence of the Sinuses (confluens sinuum; torcular Herophili) is the term applied to the dilated extremity of the superior sagittal sinus. It is of irregular form, and is lodged on one side (generally the right) of the internal occipital protuberance. From it the transverse sinus of the same side is derived. It receives also the blood from the occipital sinus, and is connected across the middle line with the commencement of the transverse sinus of the opposite side.

  The antero-inferior group of sinuses comprises the

Two Cavernous.

Two Superior Petrosal.

Two Intercavernous

Two Inferior Petrosal.

Basilar Plexus.

  The cavernous sinuses (sinus cavernosus) (570, 571) are so named because they present a reticulated structure, due to their being traversed by numerous interlacing filaments. They are of irregular form, larger behind than in front, and are placed one on either side of the body of the sphenoid bone, extending from the superior orbital fissure to the apex of the petrous portion of the temporal bone. Each opens behind into the petrosal sinuses. On the medial wall of each sinus is the internal carotid artery, accompanied by filaments of the carotid plexus; near the artery is the abducent nerve; on the lateral wall are the oculomotor and trochlear nerves, and the ophthalmic and maxillary divisions of the trigeminal nerve (571). These structures are separated from the blood flowing along the sinus by the lining membrane of the sinus. The cavernous sinus receives the superior ophthalmic vein through the superior orbital fissure, some of the cerebral veins, and also the small sphenoparietal sinus, which courses along the under surface of the small wing of the sphenoid. It communicates with the transverse sinus by means of the superior petrosal sinus; with the internal jugular vein through the inferior petrosal sinus and a plexus of veins on the internal carotid artery; with the pterygoid venous plexus through the foramen Vesalii, foramen ovale, and foramen lacerum, and with the angular vein through the ophthalmic vein. The two sinuses also communicate with each other by means of the anterior and posterior intercavernous sinuses.

Oblique section through the cavernous sinus.

  The ophthalmic veins (572), two in number, superior and inferior, are devoid of valves.

  The Superior Ophthalmic Vein (v. ophthalmica superior) begins at the inner angle of the orbit in a vein named the nasofrontal which communicates anteriorly with the angular vein; it pursues the same course as the ophthalmic artery, and receives tributaries corresponding to the branches of that vessel. Forming a short single trunk, it passes between the two heads of the Rectus lateralis and through the medial part of the superior orbital fissure, and ends in the cavernous sinus.

  The Inferior Ophthalmic Vein (v. ophthalmica inferior) begins in a venous net-work at the forepart of the floor and medial wall of the orbit; it receives some veins from the Rectus inferior, Obliquus inferior, lacrimal sac and eyelids, runs backward in the lower part of the orbit and divides into two branches. One of these passes through the inferior orbital fissure and joins the pterygoid venous plexus, while the other enters the cranium through the superior orbital fissure and ends in the cavernous sinus, either by a separate opening, or more frequently in common with the superior ophthalmic vein.

Veins of orbit.

 

  The intercavernous sinuses (sini intercavernosi) (570) are two in number, an anterior and a posterior, and connect the two cavernous sinuses across the middle line. The anterior passes in front of the hypophysis cerebri, the posterior behind it, and they form with the cavernous sinuses a venous circle (circular sinus) around the hypophysis. The anterior one is usually the larger of the two, and one or other is occasionally absent.

  The superior petrosal sinus (sinus petrosus superior) (570) small and narrow, connects the cavernous with the transverse sinus. It runs lateralward and backward, from the posterior end of the cavernous sinus, over the trigeminal nerve, and lies in the attached margin of the tentorium cerebelli and in the superior petrosal sulcus of the temporal bone; it joins the transverse sinus where the latter curves downward on the inner surface of the mastoid part of the temporal. It receives some cerebellar and inferior cerebral veins, and veins from the tympanic cavity.

  The inferior petrosal sinus (sinus petrosus inferior) (570) is situated in the inferior petrosal sulcus formed by the junction of the petrous part of the temporal with the basilar part of the occipital. It begins in the postero-inferior part of the cavernous sinus, and, passing through the anterior part of the jugular foramen, ends in the superior bulb of the internal jugular vein. The inferior petrosal sinus receives the internal auditory veins and also veins from the medulla oblongata, pons, and under surface of the cerebellum.

  The exact relation of the parts to one another in the jugular foramen is as follows: the inferior petrosal sinus lies medially and anteriorly with the meningeal branch of the ascending pharyngeal artery, and is directed obliquely downward and backward; the transverse sinus is situated at the lateral and back part of the foramen with a meningeal branch of the occipital artery, and between the two sinuses are the glossopharyngeal, vagus, and accessory nerves. These three sets of structures are divided from each other by two processes of fibrous tissue. The junction of the inferior petrosal sinus with the internal jugular vein takes place on the lateral aspect of the nerves.

  The basilar plexus (plexus basilaris; transverse or basilar sinus) (571) consists of several interlacing venous channels between the layers of the dura mater over the basilar part of the occipital bone, and serves to connect the two inferior petrosal sinuses. It communicates with the anterior vertebral venous plexus.

Emissary Veins (emissaria).—The emissary veins pass through apertures in the cranial wall and establish communication between the sinuses inside the skull and the veins external to it. Some are always present, others only occasionally so. The principal emissary veins are the following: (1) A mastoid emissary vein, usually present, runs through the mastoid foramen and unites the transverse sinus with the posterior auricular or with the occipital vein. (2) A parietal emissary vein passes through the parietal foramen and connects the superior sagittal sinus with the veins of the scalp. (3) A net-work of minute veins (rete canalis hypoglossi) traverses the hypoglossal canal and joins the transverse sinus with the vertebral vein and deep veins of the neck. (4) An inconstant condyloid emissary vein passes through the condyloid canal and connects the transverse sinus with the deep veins of the neck. (5) A net-work of veins (rete foraminis ovalis) unites the cavernous sinus with the pterygoid plexus through the foramen ovale. (6) Two or three small veins run through the foramen lacerum and connect the cavernous sinus with the pterygoid plexus. (7) The emissary vein of the foramen of Vesalius connects the same parts. (8) An internal carotid plexus of veins traverses the carotid canal and unites the cavernous sinus with the internal jugular vein. (9) A vein is transmitted through the foramen cecum and connects the superior sagittal sinus with the veins of the nasal cavity.

•        diploic veins from skull bones:

The diploic veins (564) occupy channels in the diploë of the cranial bones. They are large and exhibit at irregular intervals pouch-like dilatations; their walls are thin, and formed of endothelium resting upon a layer of elastic tissue.

  So long as the cranial bones are separable from one another, these veins are confined to the particular bones; but when the sutures are obliterated, they unite with each other, and increase in size. They communicate with the meningeal veins and the sinuses of the dura mater, and with the veins of the pericranium. They consist of (1) the frontal, which opens into the supraorbital vein and the superior sagittal sinus; (2) the anterior temporal, which is confined chiefly to the frontal bone, and opens into the sphenoparietal sinus and into one of the deep temporal veins, through an aperture in the great wing of the sphenoid; (3) the posterior temporal, which is situated in the parietal bone, and ends in the transverse sinus, through an aperture at the mastoid angle of the parietal bone or through the mastoid foramen; and (4) the occipital, the largest of the four, which is confined to the occipital bone, and opens either externally into the occipital vein, or internally into the transverse sinus or into the confluence of the sinuses (torcular Herophili).

Veins of the diploë as displayed by the removal of the outer table of the skull.

 

•        meningeal veins are from cranial dura mater;

•        superior ophthalmic vein and inferior ophtalmic vein is from sight organ;

•   labyrinthic veins - from internal ear;

•   emissary veins from intracranial veins and sinuses of dura mater and communicate with extracranial veins.

External jugular vein is generated by the confluence of occipital vein and posterior auricular vein, which accompany same name arteries. External jugular vein receives anterior jugular vein, which collect blood from anterior neck area and, anastomosing each other, form jugular venous arc.

Subclavian vein continues from axillary vein, lies in same name sulcus of first rib and collects blood from thoracic veins and dorsal scapular vein.

The veins of the head and neck may be subdivided into three groups: (1) The veins of the exterior of the head and face. (2) The veins of the neck. (3) The diploic veins, the veins of the brain, and the venous sinuses of the dura mater.

1. The Veins of the Exterior of the Head and Face—The veins of the exterior of the head and face (557) are:

Frontal.

Superficial Temporal.

Supraorbital.

Internal Maxillary.

Angular.

Posterior Facial.

Anterior Facial.

Posterior Auricular.

Occipital.

Veins of the head and neck.

 

  The frontal vein (v. frontalis) begins on the forehead in a venous plexus which communicates with the frontal branches of the superficial temporal vein. The veins converge to form a single trunk, which runs downward near the middle line of the forehead parallel with the vein of the opposite side. The two veins are joined, at the root of the nose, by a transverse branch, called the nasal arch, which receives some small veins from the dorsum of the nose. At the root of the nose the veins diverge, and, each at the medial angle of the orbit, joins the supraorbital vein, to form the angular vein. Occasionally the frontal veins join to form a single trunk, which bifurcates at the root of the nose into the two angular veins.

  The supraorbital vein (v. supraorbitalis) begins on the forehead where it communicates with the frontal branch of the superficial temporal vein. It runs downward superficial to the Frontalis muscle, and joins the frontal vein at the medial angle of the orbit to form the angular vein. Previous to its junction with the frontal vein, it sends through the supraorbital notch into the orbit a branch which communicates with the ophthalmic vein; as this vessel passes through the notch, it receives the frontal diploic vein through a foramen at the bottom of the notch.

  The angular vein (v. angularis) formed by the junction of the frontal and supraorbital veins, runs obliquely downward, on the side of the root of the nose, to the level of the lower margin of the orbit, where it becomes the anterior facial vein. It receives the veins of the ala nasi, and communicates with the superior ophthalmic vein through the nasofrontal vein, thus establishing an important anastomosis between the anterior facial vein and the cavernous sinus.

  The anterior facial vein (v. facialis anterior; facial vein) commences at the side of the root of the nose, and is a direct continuation of the angular vein. It lies behind the external maxillary (facial) artery and follows a less tortuous course. It runs obliquely downward and backward, beneath the Zygomaticus and zygomatic head of the Quadratus labii superioris, descends along the anterior border and then on the superficial surface of the Masseter, crosses over the body of the mandible, and passes obliquely backward, beneath the Platysma and cervical fascia, superficial to the submandibular gland, the Digastricus and Stylohyoideus. It unites with the posterior facial vein to form the common facial vein, which crosses the external carotid artery and enters the internal jugular vein at a variable point below the hyoid bone. From near its termination a communicating branch often runs down the anterior border of the Sternocleidomastoideus to join the lower part of the anterior jugular vein. The facial vein has no valves, and its walls are not so flaccid as most superficial veins.

 

Tributaries.—The anterior facial vein receives a branch of considerable size, the deep facial vein, from the pterygoid venous plexus. It is also joined by the superior and inferior palpebral, the superior and inferior labial, the buccinator and the masseteric veins. Below the mandible it receives the submental, palatine, and submandibular veins, and, generally, the vena comitans of the hypoglossal nerve.

  The superficial temporal vein (v. temporalis superficialis) begins on the side and vertex of the skull in a plexus which communicates with the frontal and supraorbital veins, with the corresponding vein of the opposite side, and with the posterior auricular and occipital veins. From this net-work frontal and parietal branches arise, and unite above the zygomatic arch to form the trunk of the vein, which is joined in this situation by the middle temporal vein, from the substance of the Temporalis. It then crosses the posterior root of the zygomatic arch, enters the substance of the parotid gland, and unites with the internal maxillary vein to form the posterior facial vein.

 

Tributaries.—The superficial temporal vein receives in its course some parotid veins, articular veins from the temporomandibular joint, anterior auricular veins from the auricula, and the transverse facial from the side of the face. The middle temporal vein receives the orbital vein, which is formed by some lateral palpebral branches, and passes backward between the layers of the temporal fascia to join the superficial temporal vein.

  The pterygoid plexus (plexus pterygoideus) is of considerable size, and is situated between the Temporalis and Pterygoideus externus, and partly between the two Pterygoidei. It receives tributaries corresponding with the branches of the internal maxillary artery. Thus it receives the sphenopalatine, the middle meningeal, the deep temporal, the pterygoid, masseteric, buccinator, alveolar, and some palatine veins, and a branch which communicates with the ophthalmic vein through the inferior orbital fissure. This plexus communicates freely with the anterior facial vein; it also communicates with the cavernous sinus, by branches through the foramen Vesalii, foramen ovale, and foramen lacerum.

  The internal maxillary vein (v. maxillaris interna) is a short trunk which accompanies the first part of the internal maxillary artery. It is formed by a confluence of the veins of the pterygoid plexus, and passes backward between the sphenomandibular ligament and the neck of the mandible, and unites with the temporal vein to form the posterior facial vein.

  The posterior facial vein (v. facialis posterior; temporomaxillary vein), formed by the union of the superficial temporal and internal maxillary veins, descends in the substance of the parotid gland, superficial to the external carotid artery but beneath the facial nerve, between the ramus of the mandible and the Sternocleidomastoideus muscle. It divides into two branches, an anterior, which passes forward and unites with the anterior facial vein to form the common facial vein and a posterior, which is joined by the posterior auricular vein and becomes the external jugular vein.

  The posterior auricular vein (v. auricularis posterior) begins upon the side of the head, in a plexus which communicates with the tributaries of the occipital, and superficial temporal veins. It descends behind the auricula, and joins the posterior division of the posterior facial vein to form the external jugular. It receive the stylomastoid vein, and some tributaries from the cranial surface of the auricula.

  The occipital vein (v. occipitalis) begins in a plexus at the back part of the vertex of the skull, From the plexus emerges a single vessel, which pierces the cranial attachment of the Trapezius and, dipping into the suboccipital triangle, joins the deep cervical and vertebral veins. Occasionally it follows the course of the occipital artery and ends in the internal jugular; in other instances, it joins the posterior auricular and through it opens into the external jugular. The parietal emissary vein connects it with the superior sagittal sinus; and as it passes across the mastoid portion of the temporal bone, it receives the mastoid emissary vein which connects it with the transverse sinus. The occipital diploic vein sometimes joins it.

 

Superficial veins of the neck

The veins of the neck (558), which return the blood from the head and face, are:

External Jugular.

Anterior Jugular.

Posterior External Jugular.

Internal Jugular.

Vertebral.

  The external jugular vein (v. jugularis externa) receives the greater part of the blood from the exterior of the cranium and the deep parts of the face, being formed by the junction of the posterior division of the posterior facial with the posterior auricular vein. It commences in the substance of the parotid gland, on a level with the angle of the mandible, and runs perpendicularly down the neck, in the direction of a line drawn from the angle of the mandible to the middle of the clavicle at the posterior border of the Sternocleidomastoideus. In its course it crosses the Sternocleidomastoideus obliquely, and in the subclavian triangle perforates the deep fascia, and ends in the subclavian vein, lateral to or in front of the Scalenus anterior. It is separated from the Sternocleidomastoideus by the investing layer of the deep cervical fascia, and is covered by the Platysma, the superficial fascia, and the integument; it crosses the cutaneous cervical nerve, and its upper half runs parallel with the great auricular nerve. The external jugular vein varies in size, bearing an inverse proportion to the other veins of the neck, it is occasionally double. It is provided with two pairs of valves, the lower pair being placed at its entrance into the subclavian vein, the upper in most cases about 4 cm. above the clavicle. The portion of vein between the two sets of valves is often dilated, and is termed the sinus. These valves do not prevent the regurgitation of the blood, or the passage of injection from below upward.

 

Tributaries.—This vein receives the occipital occasionally, the posterior external jugular, and, near its termination, the transverse cervical, transverse scapular, and anterior jugular veins; in the substance of the parotid, a large branch of communication from the internal jugular joins it.

The veins of the neck, viewed from in front.

  The posterior external jugular vein (v. jugularis posterior) begins in the occipital region and returns the blood from the skin and superficial muscles in the upper and back part of the neck, lying between the Splenius and Trapezius. It runs down the back part of the neck, and opens into the external jugular vein just below the middle of its course.

  The anterior jugular vein (v. jugularis anterior) begins near the hyoid bone by the confluence of several superficial veins from the submandibular region. It descends between the median line and the anterior border of the Sternocleidomastoideus, and, at the lower part of the neck, passes beneath that muscle to open into the termination of the external jugular, or, in some instances, into the subclavian vein (557, 558). It varies considerably in size, bearing usually an inverse proportion to the external jugular; most frequently there are two anterior jugulars, a right and left; but sometimes only one. Its tributaries are some laryngeal veins, and occasionally a small thyroid vein. Just above the sternum the two anterior jugular veins communicate by a transverse trunk, the venous jugular arch, which receive tributaries from the inferior thyroid veins; each also communicates with the internal jugular. There are no valves in this vein.

  The internal jugular vein (v. jugularis interna) collects the blood from the brain, from the superficial parts of the face, and from the neck. It is directly continuous with the transverse sinus, and begins in the posterior compartment of the jugular foramen, at the base of the skull. At its origin it is somewhat dilated, and this dilatation is called the superior bulb. It runs down the side of the neck in a vertical direction, lying at first lateral to the internal carotid artery, and then lateral to the common carotid, and at the root of the neck unites with the subclavian vein to form the innominate vein; a little above its termination is a second dilatation, the inferior bulb. Above, it lies upon the Rectus capitis lateralis, behind the internal carotid artery and the nerves passing through the jugular foramen; lower down, the vein and artery lie upon the same plane, the glossopharyngeal and hypoglossal nerves passing forward between them; the vagus descends between and behind the vein and the artery in the same sheath, and the accessory runs obliquely backward, superficial or deep to the vein. At the root of the neck the right internal jugular vein is placed at a little distance from the common carotid artery, and crosses the first part of the subclavian artery, while the left internal jugular vein usually overlaps the common carotid artery. The left vein is generally smaller than the right, and each contains a pair of valves, which are placed about 2.5 cm. above the termination of the vessel.

Veins of the tongue. The hypoglossal nerve has been displaced downward in this preparation.

Tributaries.—This vein receives in its course the inferior petrosal sinus, the common facial, lingual, pharyngeal, superior and middle thyroid veins, and sometimes the occipital. The thoracic duct on the left side and the right lymphatic duct on the right side open into the angle of union of the internal jugular and subclavian veins.

  The Inferior Petrosal Sinus (sinus petrosus inferior) leaves the skull through the anterior part of the jugular foramen, and joins the superior bulb of the internal jugular vein.

  The Lingual Veins (vv. linguales) begin on the dorsum, sides, and under surface of the tongue, and, passing backward along the course of the lingual artery, end in the internal jugular vein. The vena comitans of the hypoglossal nerve (ranine vein), a branch of considerable size, begins below the tip of the tongue, and may join the lingual; generally, however, it passes backward on the Hyoglossus, and joins the common facial.

  The Pharyngeal Veins (vv. pharyngeæ) begin in the pharyngeal plexus on the outer surface of the pharynx, and, after receiving some posterior meningeal veins and the vein of the pterygoid canal, end in the internal jugular. They occasionally open into the facial, lingual, or superior thyroid vein.

  The Superior Thyroid Vein (v. thyreoidea superioris) (560) begins in the substance and on the surface of the thyroid gland, by tributaries corresponding with the branches of the superior thyroid artery, and ends in the upper part of the internal jugular vein. It receives the superior laryngeal and cricothyroid veins.

  The Middle Thyroid Vein (561, 562) collects the blood from the lower part of the thyroid gland, and after being joined by some veins from the larynx and trachea, ends in the lower part of the internal jugular vein.

  The common facial and occipital veins have been described.

The veins of the thyroid gland.

  The vertebral vein (v. vertebralis) is formed in the suboccipital triangle, from numerous small tributaries which spring from the internal vertebral venous plexuses and issue from the vertebral canal above the posterior arch of the atlas. They unite with small veins from the deep muscles at the upper part of the back of the neck, and form a vessel which enters the foramen in the transverse process of the atlas, and descends, forming a dense plexus around the vertebral artery, in the canal formed by the foramina transversaria of the cervical vertebræ. This plexus ends in a single trunk, which emerges from the foramen transversarium of the sixth cervical vertebra, and opens at the root of the neck into the back part of the innominate vein near its origin, its mouth being guarded by a pair of valves. On the right side, it crosses the first part of the subclavian artery.

 

Tributaries.—The vertebral vein communicates with the transverse sinus by a vein which passes through the condyloid canal, when that canal exists. It receives branches from the occipital vein and from the prevertebral muscles, from the internal and external vertebral venous plexuses, from the anterior vertebral and the deep cervical veins; close to its termination it is sometimes joined by the first intercostal vein.

Diagram showing common arrangement of thyroid veins.

The fascia and middle thyroid veins. The veins here designated the inferior thyroid are called by Kocher the thyroidea ima.

  The Anterior Vertebral Vein commences in a plexus around the transverse processes of the upper cervical vertebræ, descends in company with the ascending cervical artery between the Scalenus anterior and Longus capitis muscles, and opens into the terminal part of the vertebral vein.

The vertebral vein.

  The Deep Cervical Vein (v. cervicalis profunda; posterior vertebral or posterior deep cervical vein) accompanies its artery between the Semispinales capitis and colli. It begins in the suboccipital region by communicating branches from the occipital vein and by small veins from the deep muscles at the back of the neck. It receives tributaries from the plexuses around the spinous processes of the cervical vertebræ, and terminates in the lower part of the vertebral vein.

 

Head and neck division of vagus nerve and sympathetic trunk. cervical plexus

X Vagus nerve (mixed) contains motor fibers which start from nucleus ambiguus, parasympathetic (preganglionic) fibers form dorsal nucleus and sensory fibers from superior and inferior ganglia in jugular foramen.

*          Cranial part of vagus nerve gives off the following branches:

Meningeal branch which starts from superior ganglion and passes to cranial dura mater in posterior cranial fossa;

Auricular branch, which starts from superior ganglion

, passes over mastoid canalicule of temporal bone and innervates the skin of external surface of auricle and posterior wall of external acoustic meatus.

The vagus nerve is composed of both motor and sensory fibers, and has a more extensive course and distribution than any of the other cranial nerves, since it passes through the neck and thorax to the abdomen.

Plan of upper portions of glossopharyngeal, vagus, and accessory nerves.

  The vagus is attached by eight or ten filaments to the medulla oblongata in the groove between the olive and the inferior peduncle, below the glossopharyngeal. The sensory fibers arise from the cells of the jugular ganglion and ganglion nodosum of the nerve, and, when traced into the medulla oblongata mostly end by arborizing around the cells of the inferior part of a nucleus which lies beneath the ala cinerea in the lower part of the rhomboid fossa. These are the sympathetic afferent fibers. Some of the sensory fibers of the glossopharyngeal nerve have been seen to end in the upper part of this nucleus. A few of the sensory fibers of the vagus, probably taste fibers, descend in the fasciculus solitarius and end around its cells. The somatic sensory fibers, few in number, from the posterior part of the external auditory meatus and the back of the ear, probably join the spinal tract of the trigeminal as it descends in the medulla. The somatic motor fibers arise from the cells of the nucleus ambiguus, already referred to in connection with the motor root of the glossopharyngeal nerve.

  The sympathetic efferent fibers, distributed probably as preganglionic fibers to the thoracic and abdominal viscera, i. e., as motor fibers to the bronchial tree, inhibitory fibers to the heart, motor fibers to the esophagus, stomach, small intestine and gall passages, and as secretory fibers to the stomach and pancreas, arise from the dorsal nucleus of the vagus.

  The filaments of the nerve unite, and form a flat cord, which passes beneath the flocculus to the jugular foramen, through which it leaves the cranium. In emerging through this opening, the vagus is accompanied by and contained in the same sheath of dura mater with the accessory nerve, a septum separating them from the glossopharyngeal which lies in front (792). In this situation the vagus presents a well-marked ganglionic enlargement, which is called the jugular ganglion (ganglion of the root); to it the accessory nerve is connected by one or two filaments. After its exit from the jugular foramen the vagus is joined by the cranial portion of the accessory nerve, and enlarges into a second gangliform swelling, called the ganglion nodosum (ganglion of the trunk); through this the fibers of the cranial portion of the accessory pass without interruption, being principally distributed to the pharyngeal and superior laryngeal branches of the vagus, but some of its fibers descend in the trunk of the vagus, to be distributed with the recurrent nerve and probably also with the cardiac nerves.

Upper part of medulla spinalis and hind- and mid-brains; posterior aspect, exposed in situ.

  The vagus nerve passes vertically down the neck within the carotid sheath, lying between the internal jugular vein and internal carotid artery as far as the upper border of the thyroid cartilage, and then between the same vein and the common carotid artery to the root of the neck. The further course of the nerve differs on the two sides of the body.

  On the right side, the nerve passes across the subclavian artery between it and the right innominate vein, and descends by the side of the trachea to the back of the root of the lung, where it spreads out in the posterior pulmonary plexus. From the lower part of this plexus two cords descend on the esophagus, and divide to form, with branches from the opposite nerve, the esophageal plexus. Below, these branches are collected into a single cord, which runs along the back of the esophagus enters the abdomen, and is distributed to the postero-inferior surface of the stomach, joining the left side of the celiac plexus, and sending filaments to the lienal plexus.

  On the left side, the vagus enters the thorax between the left carotid and subclavian arteries, behind the left innominate vein. It crosses the left side of the arch of the aorta, and descends behind the root of the left lung, forming there the posterior pulmonary plexus. From this it runs along the anterior surface of the esophagus, where it unites with the nerve of the right side in the esophageal plexus, and is continued to the stomach, distributing branches over its anterosuperior surface; some of these extend over the fundus, and others along the lesser curvature. Filaments from these branches enter the lesser omentum, and join the hepatic plexus.

  The Jugular Ganglion (ganglion jugulare; ganglion of the root) is of a grayish color, spherical in form, about 4 mm. in diameter.

 Branches of Communication.—This ganglion is connected by several delicate filaments to the cranial portion of the accessory nerve; it also communicates by a twig with the petrous ganglion of the glossopharyngeal, with the facial nerve by means of its auricular branch, and with the sympathetic by means of an ascending filament from the superior cervical ganglion.

  The Ganglion Nodosum (ganglion of the trunk; inferior ganglion) is cylindrical in form, of a reddish color, and 2.5 cm. in length. Passing through it is the cranial portion of the accessory nerve, which blends with the vagus below the ganglion.

 

Branches of Communication.—This ganglion is connected with the hypoglossal, the superior cervical ganglion of the sympathetic, and the loop between the first and second cervical nerves.

Branches of Distribution.—The branches of distribution of the vagus are:

In the Jugular Fossa…

Meningeal.

Auricular.

In the Neck…………

Pharyngeal.

Superior laryngeal.

Recurrent.

Superior cardiac.

In the Thorax……….

Inferior cardiac.

Anterior bronchial.

Posterior bronchial.

Esophageal.

In the Abdomen…….

Gastric.

Celiac.

Hepatic.

  The Meningeal Branch (ramus meningeus; dural branch) is a recurrent filament given off from the jugular ganglion; it is distributed to the dura mater in the posterior fossa of the base of the skull.

  The Auricular Branch (ramus auricularis; nerve of Arnold) arises from the jugular ganglion, and is joined soon after its origin by a filament from the petrous ganglion of the glossopharyngeal; it passes behind the internal jugular vein, and enters the mastoid canaliculus on the lateral wall of the jugular fossa. Traversing the substance of the temporal bone, it crosses the facial canal about 4 mm. above the stylomastoid foramen, and here it gives off an ascending branch which joins the facial nerve. The nerve reaches the surface by passing through the tympanomastoid fissure between the mastoid process and the tympanic part of the temporal bone, and divides into two branches: one joins the posterior auricular nerve, the other is distributed to the skin of the back of the auricula and to the posterior part of the external acoustic meatus.

  The Pharyngeal Branch (ramus pharyngeus), the principal motor nerve of the pharynx, arises from the upper part of the ganglion nodosum, and consists principally of filaments from the cranial portion of the accessory nerve. It passes across the internal carotid artery to the upper border of the Constrictor pharyngis medius, where it divides into numerous filaments, which join with branches from the glossopharyngeal, sympathetic, and external laryngeal to form the pharyngeal plexus. From the plexus, branches are distributed to the muscles and mucous membrane of the pharynx and the muscles of the soft palate, except the Tensor veli palatini. A minute filament descends and joins the hypoglossal nerve as it winds around the occipital artery.

Course and distribution of the glossopharyngeal, vagus, and accessory nerves.

  The Superior Laryngeal Nerve (n. laryngeus superior) larger than the preceding, arises from the middle of the ganglion nodosum and in its course receives a branch from the superior cervical ganglion of the sympathetic. It descends, by the side of the pharynx, behind the internal carotid artery, and divides into two branches, external and internal.

  The external branch (ramus externus), the smaller, descends on the larynx, beneath the Sternothyreoideus, to supply the Cricothyreoideus. It gives branches to the pharyngeal plexus and the Constrictor pharyngis inferior, and communicates with the superior cardiac nerve, behind the common carotid artery.

  The internal branch (ramus internus) descends to the hyothyroid membrane, pierces it in company with the superior laryngeal artery, and is distributed to the mucous membrane of the larynx. Of these branches some are distributed to the epiglottis, the base of the tongue, and the epiglottic glands; others pass backward, in the aryepiglottic fold, to supply the mucous membrane surrounding the entrance of the larynx, and that lining the cavity of the larynx as low down as the vocal folds. A filament descends beneath the mucous membrane on the inner surface of the thyroid cartilage and joins the recurrent nerve.

  The Recurrent Nerve (n. recurrens; inferior or recurrent laryngeal nerve) arises, on the right side, in front of the subclavian artery; winds from before backward around that vessel, and ascends obliquely to the side of the trachea behind the common carotid artery, and either in front of or behind the inferior thyroid artery. On the left side, it arises on the left of the arch of the aorta, and winds below the aorta at the point where the ligamentum arteriosum is attached, and then ascends to the side of the trachea. The nerve on either side ascends in the groove between the trachea and esophagus, passes under the lower border of the Constrictor pharyngis inferior, and enters the larynx behind the articulation of the inferior cornu of the thyroid cartilage with the cricoid; it is distributed to all the muscles of the larynx, excepting the Cricothyreoideus. It communicates with the internal branch of the superior laryngeal nerve, and gives off a few filaments to the mucous membrane of the lower part of the larynx.

  As the recurrent nerve hooks around the subclavian artery or aorta, it gives off several cardiac filaments to the deep part of the cardiac plexus. As it ascends in the neck it gives off branches, more numerous on the left than on the right side, to the mucous membrane and muscular coat of the esophagus; branches to the mucous membrane and muscular fibers of the trachea; and some pharyngeal filaments to the Constrictor pharyngis inferior.

  The Superior Cardiac Branches (rami cardiaci superiores; cervical cardiac branches), two or three in number, arise from the vagus, at the upper and lower parts of the neck.

  The upper branches are small, and communicate with the cardiac branches of the sympathetic. They can be traced to the deep part of the cardiac plexus.

  The lower branch arises at the root of the neck, just above the first rib. That from the right vagus passes in front or by the side of the innominate artery, and proceeds to the deep part of the cardiac plexus; that from the left runs down across the left side of the arch of the aorta, and joins the superficial part of the cardiac plexus.

*                   Cervical part of vagus nerve gives off:

Pharyngeal branches with branches of Glossopharyngeal nerve and sympathetic trunk form pharyngeal plexus, that innervates mucous membrane and muscles of the throat (superior and middle constrictors; levator veli palatini, palatopharyngeus and palatoglossus, uvulae muscles).

Superior cervical cardiac branches pass downward along common carotid artery and  communicate with sympathetic nerves, enter into cardiac plexus and supply the heart (sensory and parasympathetic innervating).

Superior laryngeal nerve originate from inferior ganglion and carry sensory, motor and parasympathetic preganglionic fibers. Motor fibers of the external branch innervate cricothyroid and inferior constrictor muscles, sensory fibers (internal branch) supply mucous membrane of the larynx over vocal fold, mucous membrane of the epiglottis and tongue root.

Recurrent laryngeal nerve passes upward between esophagus and trachea and sends a numerous twigs. Inferior laryngeal nerve supplies mucous membrane of the larynx below vocal fold and the rest of muscles (thyroarytenoid, lateral and posterior cricoarytenoid, transverse and oblique arytenoid, vocalis). Tracheal, esophageal and inferior cervical cardiac branches supply internal organs.

*                   Thoracic part of vagus nerve gives off:

Thoracic cardiac branches which pass to cardiac plexus;

Bronchial branches with sympathetic nerves form pulmonary plexus. Last enters in lungs with bronchi.

Esophageal branches form esophageal plexus round this organ.

Abdominal part of vagus nerve is represented by anterior and posterior vagal trunks, which originate from esophageal plexus. Anterior vagal trunk located on front surface of the stomach and gives branches gives off the anterior gastric and hepatic branches. Posterior vagal trunk supplies back gastric wall, and gives off coeliac branches to reach coeliac plexus. Then fibers of vagus nerve with sympathetic fibers supply the liver, spleen, pancreas, kidneys, small and large intestine (including a upper department of descending colon).

Sympathetic centres are located in lateral intermediate nuclei of lateral horns (spinal cord segments C₈-Th₁-Th₁₂-L₁-L₂).

Peripheral sympathetic division includes right and left sympathetic trunks, communicating branches, prevertebral sympathetic ganglia, plexuses and fibbers, which pass to organs and tissues.

The right sympathetic chain and its connections with the thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic plexuses.

Sympathetic trunk is a paired formation, which is found on sides from vertebral column and consists of 20-25 paravertebral sympathetic ganglia, joint between each other by interganglionic rami. The white communicating branches from spinal nerves approach to sympathetic trunk They are preganglionic fiber (passes from lateral intermediate nucleus in composition of anterior rootlets and spinal nerve to nearest paravertebral sympathetic ganglion). The white communicating branches pass to eighth cervical, all thoracic and two top lumbar spinal ganglion.

Sympathetic trunk consists of 3 cervical, 10-12 thoracic, 4-5 lumbar, 4-5 sacral and one unpaired coccigeal ganglia. White communicating branches (preganglionic fibers) approach to upper cervical, lower sacral and coccigeal ganglia by the  interganglionic branches. Ganglia of sympathetic trunk give off the gray communicating branches, which direct to nearest spinal nerve and contain postganglionic fibers.

Superior cervical ganglion is a largest ganglion of sympathetic trunk, is located in the level of transversal processes of 2-3 cervical vertebrae. Superior cervical ganglion gives off the following branches:

-         gray communicating rami for I-IV cervical spinal nerves;

-         internal carotid nerve passes to carotid artery and forms internal carotid  plexus, which passes into cranial cavity. Sympathetic rootlet for pterygopalatine ganglion (radix sympathica - deep petrosal nerve) separates from internal carotid plexus. Deep petrosal nerve passes through the pterygopalatine canal get the pterygopalatine fossa, transitory passing  through the ganglion and realize innervation of the vessels and glands of mucous membrane of the nose cavity and mouth, conjuctive and face skin;

-         jugular nerve is passes on wall of internal jugular vein, where divides into branches passing to the 9^th, 10^th and 11^th cranial nerves;

-         laryngо-pharyngeі nerves take hand in formation laryngо-pharyngeus plexus, innervating mucous membrane and vessels of the pharynx and larynx;

-         superior cervical cardiac nerve passes down parallelly with sympathetic trunk, to deep part of cardiac plexus.

Middle cervical ganglion, inconstant, located anteriorly from transversal process of 6th cervical vertebra. This ganglion is connected with superior and inferior ganglia by interganglionic rami. They form subclavian loop around subclavian artery. Middle cervical ganglion gives off such branches:

-         gray communicating branches to V-VI cervical spinal nerves;

-         common carotid nerves, which take hand in formation of external carotid plexus and plexus of inferior thyroid artery;

-         middle cervical cardiac nerve passes alongside of superior cervical cardiac nerve and enters into deep part of cardiac plexus.

Inferior cervical ganglion frequently flows together with first thoracic ganglion and forms a cervicothoracic ganglion (stellate ganglion). It lies on neck of first rib, behind subclavian artery. Ganglion gives off the following branches:

-         gray communicating branches to VI-VIII cervical spinal nerves;

-         subclavian nerves, which form subclavian plexus, that ramifies on branches of this artery;

-         branches to vagus and phrenic nerves;

-         vertebral nerve, which forms vertebral plexus round vertebral artery. This plexus spreads with branches of vertebral artery to spinal cord and brain meninges;

inferior cervical cardiac nerve is passes to deep part of cardiac plexus.

The cephalic portion of the sympathetic system begins as the internal carotid nerve, which appears to be a direct prolongation of the superior cervical ganglion. It is soft in texture, and of a reddish color. It ascends by the side of the internal carotid artery, and, entering the carotid canal in the temporal bone, divides into two branches, which lie one on the lateral and the other on the medial side of that vessel.

  The lateral branch, the larger of the two, distributes filaments to the internal carotid artery, and forms the internal carotid plexus.

  The medial branch also distributes filaments to the internal carotid artery, and, continuing onward, forms the cavernous plexus.

  The internal carotid plexus (plexus caroticus internus; carotid plexus) is situated on the lateral side of the internal carotid artery, and in the plexus there occasionally exists a small gangliform swelling, the carotid ganglion, on the under surface of the artery. The internal carotid plexus communicates with the semilunar ganglion, the abducent nerve, and the sphenopalatine ganglion; it distributes filaments to the wall of the carotid artery, and also communicates with the tympanic branch of the glossopharyngeal nerve.

  The communicating branches with the abducent nerve consist of one or two filaments which join that nerve as it lies upon the lateral side of the internal carotid artery. The communication with the sphenopalatine ganglion is effected by a branch, the deep petrosal, given off from the plexus on the lateral side of the artery; this branch passes through the cartilage filling up the foramen lacerum, and joins the greater superficial petrosal to form the nerve of the pterygoid canal (Vidian nerve), which passes through the pterygoid canal to the sphenopalatine ganglion. The communication with the tympanic branch of the glossopharyngeal nerve is effected by the caroticotympanic, which may consist of two or three delicate filaments.

  The cavernous plexus (plexus cavernosus) is situated below and medial to that part of the internal carotid artery which is placed by the side of the sella turcica in the cavernous sinus, and is formed chiefly by the medial division of the internal carotid nerve. It communicates with the oculomotor, the trochlear, the ophthalmic and the abducent nerves, and with the ciliary ganglion, and distributes filaments to the wall of the internal carotid artery. The branch of communication with the oculomotor nerve joins that nerve at its point of division; the branch to the trochlear nerve joins it as it lies on the lateral wall of the cavernous sinus; other filaments are connected with the under surface of the ophthalmic nerve; and a second filament joins the abducent nerve.

  The filaments of connection with the ciliary ganglion arise from the anterior part of the cavernous plexus and enter the orbit through the superior orbital fissure; they may join the nasociliary branch of the ophthalmic nerve, or be continued forward as a separate branch.

  The terminal filaments from the internal carotid and cavernous plexuses are prolonged as plexuses around the anterior and middle cerebral arteries and the ophthalmic artery; along the former vessels, they may be traced to the pia mater; along the latter, into the orbit, where they accompany each of the branches of the vessel. The filaments prolonged on to the anterior communicating artery connect the sympathetic nerves of the right and left sides.

 

The cervical portion of the sympathetic trunk consists of three ganglia, distinguished, according to their positions, as the superior, middle, and inferior ganglia, connected by intervening cords. This portion receives no white rami communicantes from the cervical spinal nerves; its spinal fibers are derived from the white rami of the upper thoracic nerves, and enter the corresponding thoracic ganglia of the sympathetic trunk, through which they ascend into the neck.

  The superior cervical ganglion (ganglion cervicale superius), the largest of the three, is placed opposite the second and third cervical vertebræ. It is of a reddishgray color, and usually fusiform in shape; sometimes broad and flattened, and occasionally constricted at intervals; it is believed to be formed by the coalescence of four ganglia, corresponding to the upper four cervical nerves. It is in relation, in front, with the sheath of the internal carotid artery and internal jugular vein; behind, with the Longus capitis muscle.

  Its branches may be divided into inferior, lateral, medial, and anterior.

  The Inferior Branch communicates with the middle cervical ganglion.

  The Lateral Branches (external branches) consist of gray rami communicantes to the upper four cervical nerves and to certain of the cranial nerves. Sometimes the branch to the fourth cervical nerve may come from the trunk connecting the upper and middle cervical ganglia. The branches to the cranial nerves consist of delicate filaments, which run to the ganglion nodosum of the vagus, and to the hypoglossal nerve. A filament, the jugular nerve, passes upward to the base of the skull, and divides to join the petrous ganglion of the glossopharyngeal, and the jugular ganglion of the vagus.

  The Medial Branches (internal branches) are peripheral, and are the larnygopharyngeal branches and the superior cardiac nerve.

  The laryngopharyngeal branches (rami laryngopharyngei) pass to the side of the pharynx, where they join with branches from the glossopharyngeal, vagus, and external laryngeal nerves to form the pharyngeal plexus.

  The superior cardiac nerve (n. cardiacus superior) arises by two or more branches from the superior cervical ganglion, and occasionally receives a filament from the trunk between the first and second cervical ganglia. It runs down the neck behind the common carotid artery, and in front of the Longus colli muscle; and crosses in front of the inferior thyroid artery, and recurrent nerve. The course of the nerves on the two sides then differ. The right nerve, at the root of the neck, passes either in front of or behind the subclavian artery, and along the innominate artery to the back of the arch of the aorta, where it joins the deep part of the cardiac plexus. It is connected with other branches of the sympathetic; about the middle of the neck it receives filaments from the external laryngeal nerve; lower down, one or two twigs from the vagus; and as it enters the thorax it is joined by a filament from the recurrent nerve. Filaments from the nerve communicate with the thyroid branches from the middle cervical ganglion. The left nerve, in the thorax, runs in front of the left common carotid artery and across the left side of the arch of the aorta, to the superficial part of the cardiac plexus.

Diagram of the cervical sympathetic.

  The Anterior Branches (nn. carotici externi) ramify upon the common carotid artery and upon the external carotid artery and its branches, forming around each a delicate plexus, on the nerves composing which small ganglia are occasionally found. The plexuses accompanying some of these arteries have important communications with other nerves. That surrounding the external maxillary artery communicates with the submaxillary ganglion by a filament; and that accompanying the middle meningeal artery sends an offset to the otic ganglion, and a second, the external petrosal nerve, to the genicular ganglion of the facial nerve.

  The middle cervical ganglion (ganglion cervicale medium) is the smallest of the three cervical ganglia, and is occasionally wanting. It is placed opposite the sixth cervical vertebra, usually in front of, or close to, the inferior thyroid artery. It is probably formed by the coalescence of two ganglia corresponding to the fifth and sixth cervical nerves.

  It sends gray rami communicantes to the fifth and sixth cervical nerves, and gives off the middle cardiac nerve.

  The Middle Cardiac Nerve (n. cardiacus medius; great cardiac nerve), the largest of the three cardiac nerves, arises from the middle cervical ganglion, or from the trunk between the middle and inferior ganglia. On the right side it descends behind the common carotid artery, and at the root of the neck runs either in front of or behind the subclavian artery; it then descends on the trachea, receives a few filaments from the recurrent nerve, and joins the right half of the deep part of the cardiac plexus. In the neck, it communicates with the superior cardiac and recurrent nerves. On the left side, the middle cardiac nerve enters the chest between the left carotid and subclavian arteries, and joins the left half of the deep part of the cardiac plexus.

Plan of right sympathetic cord and splanchnic nerves.

The inferior cervical ganglion (ganglion cervicale inferius) is situated between the base of the transverse process of the last cervical vertebra and the neck of the first rib, on the medial side of the costocervical artery. Its form is irregular; it is larger in size than the preceding, and is frequently fused with the first thoracic ganglion. It is probably formed by the coalescence of two ganglia which correspond to the seventh and eighth cervical nerves. It is connected to the middle cervical ganglion by two or more cords, one of which forms a loop around the subclavian artery and supplies offsets to it. This loop is named the ansa subclavia (Vieussenii).

  The ganglion sends gray rami communicantes to the seventh and eighth cervical nerves.

  It gives off the inferior cardiac nerve, and offsets to bloodvessels.

  The inferior cardiac nerve (n. cardiacus inferior) arises from either the inferior cervical or the first thoracic ganglion. It descends behind the subclavian artery and along the front of the trachea, to join the deep part of the cardiac plexus. It communicates freely behind the subclavian artery with the recurrent nerve and the middle cardiac nerve.

  The offsets to bloodvessels form plexuses on the subclavian artery and its branches. The plexus on the vertebral artery is continued on to the basilar, posterior cerebral, and cerebellar arteries. The plexus on the inferior thyroid artery accompanies the artery to the thyroid gland, and communicates with the recurrent and external laryngeal nerves, with the superior cardiac nerve, and with the plexus on the common carotid artery.

 

The Cervical plexus is formed from the ventral rami of the first four spinal nerves (C1-C4). It is located under sternocleidomastoid muscle. The motor, cutaneous and mixed nerves start from this plexus.

Short motor branches run directly to the deep cervical muscles: the anterior and lateral rectus capitis muscles, and the longus capitus and longus colli muscles of the head and neck, anterior, middle and posterior scalenus muscles, also sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles. Fibers associated with the hypoglossal nerve and form the ansa cervicalis that innervates the infrahyoid muscles: the omohyoid, sternothyroid and sternohyoid, thyrohyoid.

The sensory nerves of the plexus penetrate the fascia behind the sternocleidomastoid muscle:

·        transverse cervical nerve of the neck (supplies the anterior cervical region)

·        lesser occipital nerve (for lateral occipital region)

·        greater auricular nerve (the region of the ear)

·        supraclavlcular nerves (supply the supraclavicular region, the shoulder and the upper thoracic re­gion)

Plan of the cervical plexus.

The Phrenic nerve (mixed) enters the superior thoracic aperture and runs through the mediastinum to the dia­phragm, giving off small branches for the sensory innervation of the pericar­dium. It divides on the surface of the dia­phragm to supply all the diaphragma­tic muscle. Branches pro­vide the sensory fibers to the serous coverings of the diaphragm, the pleura cranially and caudally the peritoneum covering it and the liver and gallbladder.

Terminal branches of external carotid artery: maxillary and superficial temporal arteries, topography distribution of branches

Follow arteries belong to terminal  branches:

3)    Superficial temporal artery, which is continuation of external carotid artery, passes in front of auricle into temporal area and on level of supraorbital margin of frontal bone subdivides into frontal branch and parietal branch, which feed muscles and skin in frontal and parietal area. On this course superficial temporal artery gives off the branches for parotid salivary gland (r. parotideus), zygomaticoorbital artery, for facial muscles (a. transversa faciei), for auricle (rr. auriculares anteriores) and for temporal muscle (a. temporalis media);

4)    Maxillary artery is a largest branch of external carotid artery. According to topography in it one can pick out a mandibular portion, pterygoid portion and pterygopalatine portion.

c)     The first mandibular portion gives off branches to temporo-mandibular joint

The internal carotid and vertebral arteries. Right side.

d)   

 

·          deep auricular artery supplies external ear also tympanic membrane

·          anterior tympanic artery supplies the tympanic cavity

·          middle meningeal artery passes through spinous foramen into scull and feeds dura mater

·          inferior alveolar artery runs into mandibular canal supplies teeth and gingivae of lower jaw and continue as mental artery in mental region.

d)    The second portion of maxillary artery gives off the branches to masticator and buccal muscles (masseteric, deep temporal arteries, pterygoid branches, and buccal artery).

e)     The third portion of maxillary artery gives off :

·          Posterior superior alveolar arteries pass though alveolar canals of maxilla, supply teeth of upper jaw: molars and premolars with parodont

·          infraorbital artery runs through inferior orbital fissura and infraorbital canal, gives off anterior and middle superior alveolar arteries that supply maxilla, upper teeth and gingivae, face muscles

·          sphenopalatine artery to mucous membrane of the nasal cavity

·          descending palatine artery (for palatine)

major and minores palatine arteries (for palatine)

The maxillary artery (a. maxillaris) (510), the larger of the two terminal branches of the external carotid, arises behind the neck of the mandible, and is at first imbedded in the substance of the parotid gland; it passes forward between the ramus of the mandible and the sphenomandibular ligament, and then runs, either superficial or deep to the Pterygoideus externus, to the pterygopalatine fossa. It supplies the deep structures of the face, and may be divided into mandibular, pterygoid, and pterygopalatine portions.

  The first or mandibular portion passes horizontally forward, between the ramus of the mandible and the sphenomandibular ligament, where it lies parallel to and a little below the auriculotemporal nerve; it crosses the inferior alveolar nerve, and runs along the lower border of the Pterygoideus externus.

  The second or pterygoid portion runs obliquely forward and upward under cover of the ramus of the mandible and insertion of the Temporalis, on the superficial (very frequently on the deep) surface of the Pterygoideus externus; it then passes between the two heads of origin of this muscle and enters the fossa.

  The third or pterygopalatine portion lies in the pterygopalatine fossa in relation with the sphenopalatine ganglion.

  The branches of this vessel may be divided into three groups (511), corresponding with its three divisions.

 Branches of the First or Mandibular Portions.

Anterior Tympanic.

Middle Meningeal.

Deep Auricular.

Accessory Meningeal

Inferior Alveolar.

 

  The Anterior Tympanic Artery (a. tympanica anterior; tympanic artery) passes upward behind the temporomandibular articulation, enters the tympanic cavity through the petrotympanic fissure, and ramifies upon the tympanic membrane, forming a vascular circle around the membrane with the stylomastoid branch of the posterior auricular, and anastomosing with the artery of the pterygoid canal and with the caroticotympanic branch from the internal carotid.

Plan of branches of maxillary artery.

  The Deep Auricular Artery (a. auricularis profunda) often arises in common with the preceding. It ascends in the substance of the parotid gland, behind the temporomandibular articulation, pierces the cartilaginous or bony wall of the external acoustic meatus, and supplies its cuticular lining and the outer surface of the tympanic membrane. It gives a branch to the temporomandibular joint.

  The Middle Meningeal Artery (a. meningea media;

 medidural artery) is the largest of the arteries which supply the dura mater. It ascends between the sphenomandibular ligament and the Pterygoideus externus, and between the two roots of the auriculotemporal nerve to the foramen spinosum of the sphenoid bone, through which it enters the cranium; it then runs forward in a groove on the great wing of the sphenoid bone, and divides into two branches, anterior and posterior. The anterior branch, the larger, crosses the great wing of the sphenoid, reaches the groove, or canal, in the sphenoidal angle of the parietal bone, and then divides into branches which spread out between the dura mater and internal surface of the cranium, some passing upward as far as the vertex, and others backward to the occipital region. The posterior branch curves backward on the squama of the temporal bone, and, reaching the parietal some distance in front of its mastoid angle, divides into branches which supply the posterior part of the dura mater and cranium. The branches of the middle meningeal artery are distributed partly to the dura mater, but chiefly to the bones; they anastomose with the arteries of the opposite side, and with the anterior and posterior meningeal.

  The middle meningeal on entering the cranium gives off the following branches: (1) Numerous small vessels supply the semilunar ganglion and the dura mater in this situation. (2) A superficial petrosal branch enters the hiatus of the facial canal, supplies the facial nerve, and anastomoses with the stylomastoid branch of the posterior auricular artery. (3) A superior tympanic artery runs in the canal for the Tensor tympani, and supplies this muscle and the lining membrane of the canal. (4) Orbital branches pass through the superior orbital fissure or through separate canals in the great wing of the sphenoid, to anastomose with the lacrimal or other branches of the ophthalmic artery. (5) Temporal branches pass through foramina in the great wing of the sphenoid, and anastomose in the temporal fossa with the deep temporal arteries.

  The Accessory Meningeal Branch (ramus meningeus accessorius; small meningeal or parvidural branch) is sometimes derived from the preceding. It enters the skull through the foramen ovale, and supplies the semilunar ganglion and dura mater.

  The Inferior Alveolar Artery (a. alveolaris inferior; inferior dental artery) descends with the inferior alveolar nerve to the mandibular foramen on the medial surface of the ramus of the mandible. It runs along the mandibular canal in the substance of the bone, accompanied by the nerve, and opposite the first premolar tooth divides into two branches, incisor and mental. The incisor branch is continued forward beneath the incisor teeth as far as the middle line, where it anastomoses with the artery of the opposite side; the mental branch escapes with the nerve at the mental foramen, supplies the chin, and anastomoses with the submental and inferior labial arteries. Near its origin the inferior alveolar artery gives off a lingual branch which descends with the lingual nerve and supplies the mucous membrane of the mouth. As the inferior alveolar artery enters the foramen, it gives off a mylohyoid branch which runs in the mylohyoid groove, and ramifies on the under surface of the Mylohyoideus. The inferior alveolar artery and its incisor branch during their course through the substance of the bone give off a few twigs which are lost in the cancellous tissue, and a series of branches which correspond in number to the roots of the teeth: these enter the minute apertures at the extremities of the roots, and supply the pulp of the teeth.

 Branches of the Second or Pterygoid Portion.—

Deep Temporal.

Masseteric.

Pterygoid.

Buccinator.

  The Deep Temporal Branches, two in number, anterior and posterior, ascend between the Temporalis and the pericranium; they supply the muscle, and anastomose with the middle temporal artery; the anterior communicates with the lacrimal artery by means of small branches which perforate the zygomatic bone and great wing of the sphenoid.

  The Pterygoid Branches (rami pterygoidei), irregular in their number and origin, supply the Pterygoidei.

  The Masseteric Artery (a. masseterica) is small and passes lateralward through the mandibular notch to the deep surface of the Masseter. It supplies the muscle, and anastomoses with the masseteric branches of the external maxillary and with the transverse facial artery.

  The Buccinator Artery (a. buccinatoria; buccal artery) is small and runs obliquely forward, between the Pterygoideus internus and the insertion of the Temporalis, to the outer surface of the Buccinator, to which it is distributed, anastomosing with branches of the external maxillary and with the infraorbital.

 Branches of the Third or Pterygopalatine Portion.—

Posterior Superior Alveolar.

Artery of the Pterygoid Canal.

Infraorbital.

Pharyngeal.

Descending Palatine.

Sphenopalatine.

  The Posterior Superior Alveolar Artery (a. alveolaris superior posterior; alveolar or posterior dental artery) is given off from the internal maxillary, frequently in conjunction with the infraorbital just as the trunk of the vessel is passing into the pterygopalatine fossa. Descending upon the tuberosity of the maxilla, it divides into numerous branches, some of which enter the alveolar canals, to supply the molar and premolar teeth and the lining of the maxillary sinus, while others are continued forward on the alveolar process to supply the gums.

  The Infraorbital Artery (a. infraorbitalis) appears, from its direction, to be the continuation of the trunk of the internal maxillary, but often arises in conjunction with the posterior superior alveolar. It runs along the infraorbital groove and canal with the infraorbital nerve, and emerges on the face through the infraorbital foramen, beneath the infraorbital head of the Quadratus labii superioris. While in the canal, it gives off (a) orbital branches which assist in supplying the Rectus inferior and Obliquus inferior and the lacrimal sac, and (b) anterior superior alveolar branches which descend through the anterior alveolar canals to supply the upper incisor and canine teeth and the mucous membrane of the maxillary sinus. On the face, some branches pass upward to the medial angle of the orbit and the lacrimal sac, anastomosing with the angular branch of the external maxillary artery; others run toward the nose, anastomosing with the dorsal nasal branch of the ophthalmic; and others descend between the Quadratus labii superioris and the Caninus, and anastomose with the external maxillary, transverse facial, and buccinator arteries. The four remaining branches arise from that portion of the internal maxillary which is contained in the pterygopalatine fossa.

  The Descending Palatine Artery (a. palatina descendens) descends through the pterygopalatine canal with the anterior palatine branch of the sphenopalatine ganglion, and, emerging from the greater palatine foramen, runs forward in a groove on the medial side of the alveolar border of the hard palate to the incisive canal; the terminal branch of the artery passes upward through this canal to anastomose with the sphenopalatine artery. Branches are distributed to the gums, the palatine glands, and the mucous membrane of the roof of the mouth; while in the pterygopalatine canal it gives off twigs which descend in the lesser palatine canals to supply the soft palate and palatine tonsil, anastomosing with the ascending palatine artery.

  The Artery of the Pterygoid Canal (a. canalis pterygoidei; Vidian artery) passes backward along the pterygoid canal with the corresponding nerve. It is distributed to the upper part of the pharynx and to the auditory tube, sending into the tympanic cavity a small branch which anastomoses with the other tympanic arteries.

  The Pharyngeal Branch is very small; it runs backward through the pharyngeal canal with the pharyngeal nerve, and is distributed to the upper part of the pharynx and to the auditory tube.

  The Sphenopalatine Artery (a. sphenopalatina; nasopalatine artery) passes through the sphenopalatine foramen into the cavity of the nose, at the back part of the superior meatus. Here it gives off its posterior lateral nasal branches which spread forward over the conchæ and meatuses, anastomose with the ethmoidal arteries and the nasal branches of the descending palatine, and assist in supplying the frontal, maxillary, ethmoidal, and sphenoidal sinuses. Crossing the under surface of the sphenoid the sphenopalatine artery ends on the nasal septum as the posterior septal branches; these anastomose with the ethmoidal arteries and the septal branch of the superior labial; one branch descends in a groove on the vomer to the incisive canal and anastomoses with the descending palatine artery.

1. The Veins of the Exterior of the Head and Face—The veins of the exterior of the head and face (557) are:

Frontal.

Superficial Temporal.

Supraorbital.

Internal Maxillary.

Angular.

Posterior Facial.

Anterior Facial.

Posterior Auricular.

Occipital.

Veins of the head and neck.

  The frontal vein (v. frontalis) begins on the forehead in a venous plexus which communicates with the frontal branches of the superficial temporal vein. The veins converge to form a single trunk, which runs downward near the middle line of the forehead parallel with the vein of the opposite side. The two veins are joined, at the root of the nose, by a transverse branch, called the nasal arch, which receives some small veins from the dorsum of the nose. At the root of the nose the veins diverge, and, each at the medial angle of the orbit, joins the supraorbital vein, to form the angular vein. Occasionally the frontal veins join to form a single trunk, which bifurcates at the root of the nose into the two angular veins.

  The supraorbital vein (v. supraorbitalis) begins on the forehead where it communicates with the frontal branch of the superficial temporal vein. It runs downward superficial to the Frontalis muscle, and joins the frontal vein at the medial angle of the orbit to form the angular vein. Previous to its junction with the frontal vein, it sends through the supraorbital notch into the orbit a branch which communicates with the ophthalmic vein; as this vessel passes through the notch, it receives the frontal diploic vein through a foramen at the bottom of the notch.

  The angular vein (v. angularis) formed by the junction of the frontal and supraorbital veins, runs obliquely downward, on the side of the root of the nose, to the level of the lower margin of the orbit, where it becomes the anterior facial vein. It receives the veins of the ala nasi, and communicates with the superior ophthalmic vein through the nasofrontal vein, thus establishing an important anastomosis between the anterior facial vein and the cavernous sinus.

  The anterior facial vein (v. facialis anterior; facial vein) commences at the side of the root of the nose, and is a direct continuation of the angular vein. It lies behind the external maxillary (facial) artery and follows a less tortuous course. It runs obliquely downward and backward, beneath the Zygomaticus and zygomatic head of the Quadratus labii superioris, descends along the anterior border and then on the superficial surface of the Masseter, crosses over the body of the mandible, and passes obliquely backward, beneath the Platysma and cervical fascia, superficial to the submandibular gland, the Digastricus and Stylohyoideus. It unites with the posterior facial vein to form the common facial vein, which crosses the external carotid artery and enters the internal jugular vein at a variable point below the hyoid bone. From near its termination a communicating branch often runs down the anterior border of the Sternocleidomastoideus to join the lower part of the anterior jugular vein. The facial vein has no valves, and its walls are not so flaccid as most superficial veins.

Tributaries.—The anterior facial vein receives a branch of considerable size, the deep facial vein, from the pterygoid venous plexus. It is also joined by the superior and inferior palpebral, the superior and inferior labial, the buccinator and the masseteric veins. Below the mandible it receives the submental, palatine, and submandibular veins, and, generally, the vena comitans of the hypoglossal nerve.

  The superficial temporal vein (v. temporalis superficialis) begins on the side and vertex of the skull in a plexus which communicates with the frontal and supraorbital veins, with the corresponding vein of the opposite side, and with the posterior auricular and occipital veins. From this net-work frontal and parietal branches arise, and unite above the zygomatic arch to form the trunk of the vein, which is joined in this situation by the middle temporal vein, from the substance of the Temporalis. It then crosses the posterior root of the zygomatic arch, enters the substance of the parotid gland, and unites with the internal maxillary vein to form the posterior facial vein.

Tributaries.—The superficial temporal vein receives in its course some parotid veins, articular veins from the temporomandibular joint, anterior auricular veins from the auricula, and the transverse facial from the side of the face. The middle temporal vein receives the orbital vein, which is formed by some lateral palpebral branches, and passes backward between the layers of the temporal fascia to join the superficial temporal vein.

  The pterygoid plexus (plexus pterygoideus) is of considerable size, and is situated between the Temporalis and Pterygoideus externus, and partly between the two Pterygoidei. It receives tributaries corresponding with the branches of the internal maxillary artery. Thus it receives the sphenopalatine, the middle meningeal, the deep temporal, the pterygoid, masseteric, buccinator, alveolar, and some palatine veins, and a branch which communicates with the ophthalmic vein through the inferior orbital fissure. This plexus communicates freely with the anterior facial vein; it also communicates with the cavernous sinus, by branches through the foramen Vesalii, foramen ovale, and foramen lacerum.

  The internal maxillary vein (v. maxillaris interna) is a short trunk which accompanies the first part of the internal maxillary artery. It is formed by a confluence of the veins of the pterygoid plexus, and passes backward between the sphenomandibular ligament and the neck of the mandible, and unites with the temporal vein to form the posterior facial vein.

  The posterior facial vein (v. facialis posterior; temporomaxillary vein), formed by the union of the superficial temporal and internal maxillary veins, descends in the substance of the parotid gland, superficial to the external carotid artery but beneath the facial nerve, between the ramus of the mandible and the Sternocleidomastoideus muscle. It divides into two branches, an anterior, which passes forward and unites with the anterior facial vein to form the common facial vein and a posterior, which is joined by the posterior auricular vein and becomes the external jugular vein.

  The posterior auricular vein (v. auricularis posterior) begins upon the side of the head, in a plexus which communicates with the tributaries of the occipital, and superficial temporal veins. It descends behind the auricula, and joins the posterior division of the posterior facial vein to form the external jugular. It receive the stylomastoid vein, and some tributaries from the cranial surface of the auricula.

  The occipital vein (v. occipitalis) begins in a plexus at the back part of the vertex of the skull, From the plexus emerges a single vessel, which pierces the cranial attachment of the Trapezius and, dipping into the suboccipital triangle, joins the deep cervical and vertebral veins. Occasionally it follows the course of the occipital artery and ends in the internal jugular; in other instances, it joins the posterior auricular and through it opens into the external jugular. The parietal emissary vein connects it with the superior sagittal sinus; and as it passes across the mastoid portion of the temporal bone, it receives the mastoid emissary vein which connects it with the transverse sinus. The occipital diploic vein sometimes joins it.

The lymph nodes of the head are arranged in the following groups:

Occipital.

Facial.

Posterior Auricular.

Deep Facial.

Anterior Auricular.

Lingual.

Parotid.

Retropharyngeal.

  The occipital nodes (lymphoglandulæ occipitales), one to three in nu ber, are placed on the back of the head close to the margin of the Trapezius and resting on the insertion of the Semispinalis capitis. Their afferent vessels drain the occipital region of the scalp, while their efferents pass to the superior deep cervical glands.

  The posterior auricular nodes (lymphoglandulæ auriculares; mastoid glands), usually two in number, are situated on the mastoid insertion of the Sternocleidomastoideus, beneath the Auricularis posterior. Their afferent vessels drain the posterior part of the temporoparietal region, the upper part of the cranial surface of the auricula or pinna, and the back of the external acoustic meatus; their efferents pass to the superior deep cervical glands.

Superficial lymph glands and lymphatic vessels of head and neck.

  The anterior auricular nodes (lymphoglandulæ auriculares anteriores; superficial parotid or preauricular nodes), from one to three in number, lie immediately in front of the tragus. Their afferents drain the lateral surface of the auricula and the skin of the adjacent part of the temporal region; their efferents pass to the superior deep cervical nodes.

  The parotid nodes (lymphoglandulæ parotideæ), form two groups in relation with the parotid salivary gland, viz., a group imbedded in the substance of the gland, and a group of subparotid nodes lying on the lateral wall of the pharynx. Occasionally small nodes are found in the subcutaneous tissue over the parotid gland. Their afferent vessels drain the root of the nose, the eyelids, the frontotemporal region, the external acoustic meatus and the tympanic cavity, possibly also the posterior parts of the palate and the floor of the nasal cavity. The efferents of these nodes pass to the superior deep cervical nodes. The afferents of the subparotid glands drain the nasal part of the pharynx and the posterior parts of the nasal cavities; their efferents pass to the superior deep cervical glands.

  The facial nodes comprise three groups: (a) infraorbital or maxillary, scattered over the infraorbital region from the groove between the nose and cheek to the zygomatic arch; (b) buccinator, one or more placed on the Buccinator opposite the angle of the mouth; (c) supramandibular, on the outer surface of the mandible, in front of the Masseter and in contact with the external maxillary artery and anterior facial vein. Their efferent vessels drain the eyelids, the conjunctiva, and the skin and mucous membrane of the nose and cheek; their efferents pass to the submandibular glands.

  The deep facial nodes (lymphoglandulæ faciales profunda; internal maxillary glands) are placed beneath the ramus of the mandible, on the outer surface of the Pterygoideus externus, in relation to the internal maxillary artery. Their afferent vessels drain the temporal and infratemporal fossæ and the nasal part of the pharynx their efferents pass to the superior deep cervical glands.

  The lingual nodes (lymphoglandulæ linguales) are two or three small nodules lying on the Hyoglossus and under the Genioglossus. They form merely glandular substations in the course of the lymphatic vessels of the tongue.

Lymphatics of pharynx.

VIDEO

  The retropharyngeal nodes (603), from one to three in number, lie in the buccopharyngeal fascia, behind the upper part of the pharynx and in front of the arch of the atlas, being separated, however, from the latter by the Longus capitis. Their afferents drain the nasal cavities, the nasal part of the pharynx, and the auditory tubes; their efferents pass to the superior deep cervical glands.

  The lymphatic vessels of the scalp are divisible into (a) those of the frontal region, which terminate in the anterior auricular and parotid glands; (b) those of the temporoparietal region, which end in the parotid and posterior auricular glands; and (c) those of the occipital region, which terminate partly in the occipital glands and partly in a trunk which runs down along the posterior border of the Sternocleidomastoideus to end in the inferior deep cervical glands.

  The lymphatic vessels of the auricula and external acoustic meatus are also divisible into three groups: (a) an anterior, from the lateral surface of the auricula and anterior wall of the meatus to the anterior auricular glands; (b) a posterior, from the margin of the auricula, the upper part of its cranial surface, the internal surface and posterior wall of the meatus to the posterior auricular and superior deep cervical glands; (c) an inferior, from the floor of the meatus and from the lobule of the auricula to the superficial and superior deep cervical glands.

  The lymphatic vessels of the face (604) are more numerous than those of the scalp. Those from the eyelids and conjunctiva terminate partly in the submandibular but mainly in the parotid glands. The vessels from the posterior part of the cheek also pass to the parotid glands, while those from the anterior portion of the cheek, the side of the nose, the upper lip, and the lateral portions of the lower lip end in the submandibular glands. The deeper vessels from the temporal and infratemporal fossæ pass to the deep facial and superior deep cervical nodes. The deeper vessels of the cheek and lips end, like the superficial, in the submandibular glands. Both superficial and deep vessels of the central part of the lower lip run to the submental glands.

The lymphatics of the face.

Lymphatic Vessels of the Nasal Cavities.—Those from the anterior parts of the nasal cavities communicate with the vessels of the integument of the nose and end in the submandibular glands; those from the posterior two-thirds of the nasal cavities and from the accessory air sinuses pass partly to the retropharyngeal and partly to the superior deep cervical glands.

 

Lymphatic Vessels of the Mouth.—The vessels of the gums pass to the submandibular glands; those of the hard palate are continuous in front with those of the upper gum, but pass backward to pierce the Constrictor pharyngis superior and end in the superior deep cervical and subparotid glands; those of the soft palate pass backward and lateralward and end partly in the retropharyngeal and subparotid, and partly in the superior deep cervical glands. The vessels of the anterior part of the floor of the mouth pass either directly to the inferior glands of the superior deep cervical group, or indirectly through the submental glands; from the rest of the floor of the mouth the vessels pass to the submandibular and superior deep cervical glands.

  The lymphatic vessels of the palatine tonsil, usually three to five in number, pierce the buccopharyngeal fascia and constrictor pharyngis superior and pass between the Stylohyoideus and internal jugular vein to the uppermost of the superior deep cervical glands. They end in a gland which lies at the side of the posterior belly of the Digastricus, on the internal jugular vein; occasionally one or two additional vessels run to small glands on the lateral side of the vein under cover of the Sternocleidomastoideus.

Lymphatics of the tongue

VIDEO

   The lymphatic vessels of the tongue (605) are drained chiefly into the deep cervical glands lying between the posterior belly of the Digastricus and the superior belly of the Omohyoideus; one gland situated at the bifurcation of the common carotid artery is so intimately associated with these vessels that it is known as the principal node of the tongue. The lymphatic vessels of the tongue may be divided into four groups: (1) apical, from the tip of the tongue to the suprahyoid glands and principal gland of the tongue; (2) lateral, from the margin of the tongue—some of these pierce the Mylohyoideus to end in the submandibular glands, others pass down on the Hyoglossus to the superior deep cervical glands; (3) basal, from the region of the vallate papillæ to the superior deep cervical glands; and (4) median, a few of which perforate the Mylohyoideus to reach the submandibular glands, while the majority turn around the posterior border of the muscle to enter the superior deep cervical glands.

Prepared by

Boymystruk I.I.